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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

Chap^^..^ Copyright No.X3J5 

Shelf_.__L3._Q0 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 










THE Students Cabinet. 


SECOND REVISED EDITION 


COMPRISING 


Farty-Feur Plates ef Illustration^, 


embracing 


ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, MENSURATION, CHANGE OF SEASONS, 
TIDES AND THEIR CAUSES, PHASES OF THE MOON, 

THE PUBLIC LAND SURVEY, HISTORICAL 
MAPS, MECHANICAL DRAWING, 

PENMANSHIP, 


AND 


A DIAGRAM OF POLITICAL PARTIES- 


WITH 



EXPLANATION OF PLATES 


AND 


DISCUSSION OF SUBJECTS. 


BY 


D. K. THOMAS, Ph.B., Ped.B. 


Press of Hudson-Kimberly Pub. Co.. 
Kansas City, Mo. 


*1 





rw u 


nES RECEIVED. 




F CONG» 

£ OF TF 

9821 JlPRl 


;S 


SECOND COPY, 



61168 
Copyrighted 1892, by 
I). K. Thomas & Co. 



Copyrighted 1893, by 
D. K. Thomas & Co. 


Copyrighted 1900, by 
The Thomas Publishing Co. 








PREFACE 


T HIS work is designed as well for the student in private study as for the teacher 
in class work. It has grown to its present form in the school-room, and is 
the result of years of experience, trial, and use. The value of abundant large and 
accurate illustrations in the study of any branch can hardly be overestimated. We 
have here attempted to present such illustrations in a form to be in sight of the 
student every day of the school year, while for the teacher’s use in class recita¬ 
tions they are alwa i j ready. 

All the illustrations have been engraved expressly for this work, and have 
been arranged in plates of a size convenient to handle. Colors have been avoided 
except where it was thought they may have a real educational value. The pro¬ 
nunciation of all the anatomical names given is indicated on the plates. 

Acknowledgment is due to many educators whose valuable suggestions 
and criticisms have added much to the merit of the work. To make special 
mention of all would here be impracticable. Great pleasure is taken in remem¬ 
bering Lea Brothers, medical publishers, of Philadelphia, to whose assistance the 
perfection of the anatomical cuts is largely due; Professors F. O. Marvin and 
S. W. Williston, of the State University of Kansas; Prof. C. S. Magowan, of the 
State University of Iowa; and Prof. O. P. Hood, of the State Agricultural College 
of Kansas, who have kindly given the most indispensable assistance. 

Kansas City, July, 1892. D. K. T_ 

THE REVISED EDITION. 


The kindly reception of the first edition, and the unsolicited testimonials 
of its usefulness in many of the best schools of Kansas, have encouraged the 
author to enlarge the work. Eight new plates and several new cuts have been 
added. The type on the plates has been replaced by a larger size, and other 
defects have been corrected. D. K. T. 

Kansas City, February, 1893. 

SECOND REVISION. 


The increasing demands of teachers and schools have induced the author 
to revise again the Cabinet. All the plates have been enlarged, and sixteen new 
ones have been added, including a set of ten historical maps. It is a pleasure to 
acknowledge the valuable assistance kindly given by Mr. R. W. Turner, former 
United States Consul to Cadiz, Spain; the favors of the librarian and assistants 
of the Public Library here, and the suggestions of many able teachers in several 
States. The excellent engraving of the maps is due to the care and skill of 
Messrs. Carlton & Rose, engravers, Kansas City, Mo. 

March 22, 1900. 


D. K. T. 





TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

Attachments and Functions of Muscles. 8 

Blood Circulation.14 

Digestion.19 

Foods. 18 

Function of Some Principal Organs.21 

Historical Maps. 39 

Joints, or Articulations. 7 

Lymphatics. 18 

Mechanical Drawing. 27 

Mensuration. 22 

Osseous System. 5 

Outline op Principal Blood Vessels..15 

Penmanship. 49 

Political Parties.44 

References to Nervous System, Plate 28.50 

The Change of Seasons .31 

The Moon’s Phases.30 

The Muscles. 8 

The Public Land Survey.32 

Tides and Their Causes.36 























ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 


What maps are to the study of political and descriptive geography, plates of 
anatomical structures are to the intelligent study of physiology. The purpose here 
has been to include only what is necessary to give the student the complement of 
the text-books; hence many important illustrations have been omitted, since they 
are to be found in every text book upon this subject. 

It is believed that the descriptions and outlines which are here given, will 
lighten the teacher’s burdens, and suggest the methods and means of more sys¬ 
tematic and effective class work, at least for young teachers. 


THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM. 


Classification of the Bones.— There are four classes: 

Long Lones —Clavicle, Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Femur, Tibia, Fibula, Meta¬ 
carpal, Metatarsal, and Phalanges. 

short Bones —Carpus and Tarsus. 

Flat Bones —Occipital, Parietal, Frontal, Nasal, Lachrymal, Vomer, Scapulae,. 
Ossa Innominata, Sterum, Ribs, and Patellae. 

Irregular or Mixed Bones —All other bones of the body. 

Structure of Bones.— The bones are hard and somewhat elastic, consisting 
of a dense surface with a more or less cancellated structure within. The long bones 
contain a longitudinal cavity filled with a fatty substance, the marrow. In other 
bones, as the frontal, this cavity is filled with air. The long bones comprise two 
ends or heads , and a middle portion, the shaft. The shaft is very hard and com¬ 
pact. The heads are greatly enlarged to afford broader surfaces for the attachment 
of ligaments and muscles. They are also much more cancellated and spongy than 
the shafts, and are covered with caps or cushions of cartilage. 

Microscopic Structure.— Under the microscope an exceedingly thin section 
of bone reveals a vast number of longitudinal channels, or canals, inter-communi¬ 
cating with each other, varying in size, and serving as channels for the circulate n 
of the blood. These channels are called Haversian canals , for Havers, their dis¬ 
coverer. Arranged around these canals in concentric rings are very minute cavities 
or lakes called Lacunce. These lacunse do not touch each other, but occupy the 
space everywhere between the canals, and are connected by exceedingly minute 
tubes called Canaliculi. 

Circulation to the Bones. —Most of the blood entering the bones passes 
through the Periosteum , a membrane surrounding all bones; besides this, the heads of 






B 


THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


the long bones, and the bodies of other bones have small openings, or Foramina , 
for the admission of arteries. 


Uses of the Bones. —The remarkable adaptation of the forms and structures 
of the bones to the purposes they serve, is very striking to a reflective mind. 
Hollow shafts, cancellated structure, broad and flat surfaces, enlargements, pro¬ 
cesses, and arrangement are all fitted and designed for a specific purpose. The 
principal uses are: 

1. To give form and position to the body. 

2. To protect delicate organs. 

3. To serve as levers for the attachment of muscles. 


Composition of the Bones. —Dry bone consists of: 

Animal Matter, about. 33 per cent. 

Calcium Phosphate. 51 “ 

Calcium Carbonate. 11 < 1 

Calcium Flouride, 

Sodium Chloride, 

Magnesium Phosphate, 

100 



Table of the Bones.— 


Skull .. ..j 
(8 bones.) 


HEAD. 

(22 bones.) 


Face .... 

(14 bones.) 


NECK 


(8 bones.) 


( 


1 


Fron'tal (forehead). 

2 Tern'po-ral (temples). 

2 Pa-ri' e-tal (sides). 

Oc-cip' i-tal (back and base). 

Sphe'noid (base and sides). 

Eth'moid (base of nose). 

2 Su-pe'ri-or Maxf il-lary (upper jaw). 
2 Na'sal (top of nose). 

2 Ma'lar (cheek bones). 

2 Lack'ry-mal (inner corner of orbit). 
2 Tur'bi-na-ted (within nostrils). 

2 Pal'ate (roof of mouth). 

Vo'mer (nasal partition). 

In-fdri-or Maxillary (lower jaw). 

7 Cer'vi-cal Ve/te-brce (neck). 

Os Hy-oid'es (-eez) (base of tongue). 


THORAX. 

(37 bones.) 


UPPER EXTREMITY. 

(64 bones.) 


f 

.j 

1 

l 

Shoulder, j 
(4 bones.) ( 

f 

Arm .-j 

(6 bones.) j 


Hand.J 

(54 bones.) j 


14 True , 6 False , 4 Floating Ribs. 
12 Dor'sal Vertebrce (back). 
StePnum (breast bone). 

2 Clai/i-cle (collar bone). 

2 Scap'u-la (shoulder blade). 

2 Hu'mer-us (arm). 

2 Ra'di-us (fore-arm). 

2 Ul'na “ 

16 Car'pal (wrist). 

10 Met'a-car'pal (hand). 

28 Pha'lan-ges (-eez) (fingers). 


























THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


LUMBAR REGION.. 

(5 bones.) 


f 

X 


j Lum-bar Vertebra (loin). 


PELVIS 


(4 bones.) 


f 2 Os In-nom-i-na'turn (hip bones). 
<| S a'crwn (back wall of pelvis). 

[ Coc'cyx (end of spinal column). 


Thigh .. .. f 
(2 bones.) I 


LOWER EXTREMITY^ 

(60 bones.) 


Leg. 

(6 bones.) 


J 

l 


r 

( Foot .-j 

(52 bones.) j 


2 Fe'mur (bone of thigh). 

2 Patel'la (knee cap). 

2 Tib'i-a (shin bones). 

2 Fib'u-la (outer bones). 

14. Tar'sus (heel). 
io Met'a-tar'sal (arch of foot). 
28 Pha-lan'ges (-eez) (toes). 


OTHER BONES. 

Besides the bones given in the table above there are other bones of great im¬ 
portance. 

( Mal'le-us. 

Bones of the Middle Ear. ... -j In/cus. 

[_ Sta'pes. 

Sessamoid Bones.— The patellae, two of the thumb, two of the great toe, and 
sometimes one of the second and fourth phalanges of the hand and foot. 


JOINTS, OR ARTICULATIONS. 

f Gliding Joints (first and second rows of carpal bones). 

Movable Articulations.. J Ball and Socket Joints { shoulder and hip). 

1 Hinge Joint (elbow, knee, and ankle). 

( Pivot Joint (atlas with axis, and radius with ulna). 

Mixed Articulations.— Bodies of vertebrae, sacrum with ossa innominata. 

Immovable Articulations, i False sutures > tem P oral with parietal. 

( True sutures, bones of the cranium. 











8 


THE STUDENT'S CABINET. 


THE MUSCLES. 


The reddish flesh of the body constitutes the muscles. Their form, size, and 
outline depend upon their location and the purpose they subserve. The outline of 
the skeleton determines, to a great degree, their arrangement, position, and action. 
They differ greatly in form and size. All the motions of the body are produced by 
the contraction and relaxation of the muscles. Hence, their arrangement in most 
cases is suited to antagonistic action; those bending a limb ( flexors ) being opposed 
by those straightening it (< extensors ); those turning the hand upward (. supinators ) 
being opposed to those turning it downward ( pronators ). 

The Names by which the muscles are designated are derived from their situa¬ 
tion, use, form, direction, attachment, etc.; as the Radialis, Adductors, Deltoid, 
Transversalis, Sterno-cleido-mastoid. 

The Uses of the muscles are numerous, varied, and important. They are the 
motors of the body. They produce the acts of breathing, and assist in the vital 
processes of digestion, circulation, etc. They protect the organs of the body from 
shocks, injuries and dangers. They assist in the expression of thoughts and emo¬ 
tions, and give roundness and grace to the parts of the body. 

Structure. —Looking at the end of a section of a muscle, it will be seen to be 
composed of bundles of fibers closely packed together. These may readily be 
separated into smaller bundles, each of which may again be divided. Finally the 
smallest bundle, or primitive fasciculus , is composed of ultimate fibers. Under the 
microscope the fiber may be seen to be composed of tiny cells , of rectangular, or 
sometimes of rounded form, arranged in a straight line. 

Each bundle of fibers is encased in a delicate sheath of areolar tissue called the 
sarcolemma . The characteristic of muscular tissue is its property of contractility. 
This power to contract is said to lie in the ultimate cells. Those muscles which are 
under the control of the will have transverse lines or striae, and are called voluntary; 
those whose action does not depend on the will are smooth, or nearly so, and are 
called involuntary. 


ATTACHMENT AND FUNCTION. 

The fixed end, or more central attachment of a muscle, is called its origin; the 
movable end is called its insertion. According to Gray, there are about three hun¬ 
dred and seventy distinct muscles in the body. Some of the more important of 
these are given below. For location and pronunciation see plates. 

THE HEAD. 

The Occipito-frontalis arises on the posterior portion of the occipital bone 
and inserts into the skin of the forehead. 

It moves the scalp and raises the eyebrows. 











THE STUDENT’S CABINET, 


9 


The Temporal arises over the whole temporal fossa and inserts into the coro- 
noid process of the lower jaw. 

It assists in raising the lower against the upper jaw. 

The Orbicularis Palpebrarum arises from the frontal bone and superior max¬ 
illary at the root of the nose, and inserts, one portion, into the muscles above me 
eye, the other at the place of origin. 

It closes the eye. 

The Orbicularis Oris originates from and inserts into the buccinator and 
other muscles at the angles of the mouth. It is in two segments, one for each lip. 

It closes the lips. 

The Levator-Labii-Superioris arises from the lower margin of the orDit and 
inserts into the upper lip. 

It raises the lip. 

The Zygomaticus Major arises from the malar bone and inserts into the angle 
of the mouth. 

It raises the upper lip and draws it outward as in laughing. 

The Masseter arises on the superior maxillary and inserts into the angle anc 
ramus of the lower jaw. 

It, with the temporal, raises the lower jaw against the upper. 

The Buccinator arises on the superior and inferior maxillae and inserts into 
the corresponding segments of the orbicularis oris. 

It contracts and compresses the cheek as in the process of mastication. 


THE NECK. 

The Sterno-Cleido-Mastoid arises by two heads from the sternum and clavi¬ 
cle bones and inserts into the mastoid process. 

It serves to draw the head forward or to the side. 

The Platysma Myoides arises from the clavicle bone and acromion process, 
nd inserts into the lower jaw and into the orbicularis oris. 

It depresses the lower jaw and draws down the corners of the mouth as in the 
expression of melancholy. 

The Trapezius arises from the occipital bone, cervical and dorsal vertebrae, 
and inserts into the clavicle, the acromion process and spine of the scapula. 

It assists in drawing the head backward and in holding it in an erect position. 

The Complexus arises from the upper dorsal and lower cervical vertebrae, and 
inserts into the occipital bone below the origin of the occipito-frontalis. 

IS assists in holding the head erect. 

The Digastric arises from the inner side of the mastoid process and inserts 
into the symphysis of the lower jaw, passing through the stylo-hyoid muscle, anc; 
being attached at its middle portion to the hyoid bone by an aponeurotic loop. 

Jv assists in the act of swallowing and in depressing the lower jaw. 



10 


THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


THE TRUNK. 

The Diaphragm arises from the whole internal circumference of the thorax 
being attached in front to the ensiform cartilage, to the cartilages and bony portions 
of the six lower ribs at the sides, and behind, to two heavy ligaments and the lum¬ 
bar vertebrae. From all these origins its fibers converge to be inserted into its cen¬ 
tral tendon. 

By its contractions the cavity of the thorax is increased, hence it is the most 
important muscle in breathing; in sneezing, coughing, vomiting, etc., it is also 
employed. 

The Serratus Magnus arises from the eight upper ribs and inserts into the 
whole vertebral border of the scapula. 

It is the most important external muscle in breathing. 

The Latissimus Dorsi arises by broad tendons from the lower dorsal, lumbar 
and sacral vertebrae, and from the crest of the ilium, and inserts by a single tendon 
into the head of the humerus. 

It assists in drawing the humerus downward and backward, and at the same 
time rotates it inward. 

The External Oblique arises from the lower eight ribs. The fibers run 
obliquely downward and forward, and are inserted into the crest of the ilium and 
into a broad tendinous sheet which joins also with that from the opposite side. 

It helps to form the walls of the abdomen and assists in bending the body for¬ 
ward. 

The Rectus Abdominis arises from the crest of the ilium and from the os 
pubis, and inserts by three portions into the fifth, sixth and seventh ribs. 

It assists in bending the body forward. 

The Rectores Spin^e comprise eleven muscles. They arise on the upper back 
part of the transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae, and insert, each into the 
lamina of the next higher vertebrae. 

In conjunction with many other muscles, these serve to maintain the erect 
position of the spinal column. 


UPPER EXTREMITY. 

The Pectoralis Major arises from the sternum, clavicle, and six or seven ribs, 
and inserts by a broad flat tendon into the upper portion of the shaft of the 
humerus. 

It depresses the arm when raised and also brings it across the chest. 

The Deltoid arises from the clavicle, the acromion process, and the spine of 
the scapula, and inserts into the outer side of the middle of the shaft of the 
humerus. 

It raises the arm at right angles to the body. 

The Supraspinatus arises on the upper portion of the outer surface of the 
scapula and inserts into the upper part of the head of the humerus. 

It assists the deltoid in raising the arm, and secures the head of the humerus 
ui its socket. 




THE STUDENT'S CABINET. 


n 


The Infraspinatus arises on the lower two-t^iirds of the outer surface of the 
scapula, and inserts by a tendon into the front part of the head of the humerus. 

It helps to rotate the humerus outward. 

The Teres Major arises from the lower outer margin of the scapula and 
inserts into the upper and inner portion of the shaft of the humerus. 

It assists in drawing the arm downward and inward, and helps to rotate it 
backward. 

The Teres Minor arises from the external border of the scapula, and inserts 
into the head of the humerus. 

It, with the infraspinatus rotates the arm outward. 

The Biceps arises by two heads, the long head from the upper margin of the 
glenoid cavity, the short head from the coracoid process/ These tendinous heads 
unite to form a large muscle on the front of the arm which converges into a heavy 
tendon that inserts into the inner side of the shaft of the radius just below its 
head. 

It flexes the fore-arm. 

The Brachialis Anticus arises from the 10 ?r half of the shaft of the 
humerus, and inserts by a thick tendon into the inner side of the head of the ulna. 

It assists the biceps in flexing the fore-arm. 

The Triceps arises in three parts, one from the scapula just below the glenoid 
cavity, the other two from the posterior surface of the humerus. They unite into 
the common tendon of the triceps which is inserted into the olecranon, or upper head 
of the ulna. 

It extends the fore-arm. 

The Supinator Longus arises on the external condyle of the humerus, and 
inserts into the lower head of the radius. 

Together with the supinator brevis it turns the fore-arm and hand upward and 
outward. 

The Extensor Carpi Radialis Longior arises from the external condyle of 
he humerus, and inserts into the base of the metacarpal of the index finger. 

It assists in extending the fore-arm and hand. 

The Extensor Carpi Ulnaris arises from the external condyle of the humerus, 
and inserts into the base of the metacarpal of the little finger. 

It acts with the supinator longus and extensor carpi radialis longior and 
brevior. 

The Pronator Radii Teres arises from the humerus just above the internal 
condyle, and inserts into the middle of the outer surface of the shaft of the radius. 

It assists in rotating the radius upon the ulna, turning the palm of the hand 
downward. 

The Flexor Carpi Radialis arises from the internal condyle of the humerus, 
and is inserted into the base of the dorsal side of the metacarpal of the index 
finger. 




THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


The Flexor Carpi Ulnaris arises from the inner condyle of the humerus and 
from the olecranon, and inserts into the pisiform bone and base of the metacarpal 
of the little finger. 

It acts with the flexor carpi radialis 

The Flexor Profundus Digitorum arises from the shaft and head of the ulna, 
and converges into four tendons which, passing through the inner side of the hand, 
inserts into the bases of the last phalanges. The tendon of the index finger is dis¬ 
tinct from the others. 

It flexes the fingers. 

The Flexor Longus Pollicis arises from the front of the shaft of the radius, 
and inserts into the base of the last phalanx of the thumb. 

it flexes the last joint of the thumb. 

The Extensor Communis Digitorum arises from the external condyle of the 
humerus, and passes by three tendons across the back of the hand to be inserted 
into the second and third phalanges of the first three fingers. 

It is the principal extensor muscle of the fingers. 

The Extensor Ossis Metacarpi Pollicis arises from the posterior surfaces 
of the shafts of the radius and ulna. Its tendon inserts into the base of the meta¬ 
carpal bone of the thumb. 

The Adductor Pollicis arises upon the whole length of the metacarpal bone 
of the middle finger on the palmar surface, and inserts into the base of the first 
phalanx of the thumb and into the internal sesamoid bone. 

It flexes the thumb. 


LOWER EXTREMITY. 

The Gluteus Maximus arises from the ilium, sacrum and coccyx, and inserts 
into the fascia covering the outer side of the thigh and into the femur just below the 
great trochanter. 

With many other muscles this one helps to hold the body erect on the pelvis; 
it also helps to extend the femur and rotate it inward. 

The Psoas Magnus arises from the bodies and transverse processes of the last 
dorsal and all the lumbar vertebrae, and inserts into the lesser trochanter of the 
femur. 

With the iliacus, it flexes the pelvis upon the thigh and at the same time rotates 
the femur outward. 

The Biceps arises by two heads, one from the ischium, the other from the 
shaft of the femur. These together form a common tendon which inserts into the 
outer side of the head of the fibula. 

It, with other muscles, flexes the leg upon the thigh and rotates it outward. 

The Semitendinous and Semimembranosus. Both these muscles arise from the 
ischium and insert into the shaft of the tibia. 

They act with the biceps and also rotate the leg inward. 





THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


13 


The Sartorius, the longest of all the muscles, arises on the upper front part of 
the ilium and passing downward behind the inner condyle of the knee, inserts into 
the surface of the shaft of the tibia. 

It flexes the leg upon the thigh and the thigh upon the pelvis. 

The Rectus Femoris arises by two tendons on the lower portion of the ilium, 
and inserts into the tendon of the patella , in common with the vastus internus and 
externus and the crureus. 

The Vastus Externus and Vastus Internus both arise near the head of 
the femur by aponeuroses and insert into the tendon of the patella. 

These two muscles, with the rectus femoris and crureus, are together called the 
quadriceps extensor, which extends the leg upon the thigh, and in standing, it alone 
balances the whole body upon the upper head of the tibia. 

The Gastrocnemius arises by two heads on the inner and outer condyles of the 
femur. These form a tendon which unites with that of the soleus to form the ten¬ 
don of Achilles. 

The Soleus arises on the upper head and shaft of the fibula, and from the 
shaft of the tibia, and inserts into the os calcis with the tendon of the gastrocne¬ 
mius. 

This muscle, with the gastrocnemius, raises the heel, and assists in balancing the 
leg upon the foot. 

The Tibialis Anticus arises from the outer and upper two-thirds of the tibia, 
and inserts into the internal cuneiform bone and metatarsal of the great toe. 

It flexes the tarsus upon the leg. 

The Peroneus Tertius is a part of the extensor longus digitorum. 

The Extensor Longus Digitorum arises from the head of the tibia and upper 
three-fourths of the shaft of the fibula, and inserts by tendons into the second and 
third phalanges of the four lesser toes. 

It extends the toes when they are flexed downward. 




CIRCULATION. 


Are not the circulations of the human body as important as the river systems 
of a distant continent ? Is it not as useful to know the location of the Brachial 
artery as to know that of the Altamaha river? For educational as well as for prac¬ 
tical purposes, the study of the circulation is as important as the study of rivers. 

There are two great systems of circulation—the Blood circulation and the 
Lymphatic circulation. 

ELOOD CIRCULATION. 

Composition. —The blood is composed of plasma and corpuscles. The plasma 
is composed of fibrin which hardens (coagulates), and the serum which remains a 
watery fluid. The corpuscles are tiny round disks, ^ of an inch in diameter, 
which give the blood its red color. They are the oxygen-bearers to the tissues of 
the body. 

Organs. —The organs of the circulation are the Heart, Arteries, Veins and 
Capillaries. 

The Heart has four chambers, two upper and two lower. The two upper 
(auricles) receive the blood from the veins, and the two lower (ventricles) drive it 
out into the arteries. The chambers on the right side have no communication with 
those on the left side, but each auricle opens into its corresponding ventricle through 
closely fitting valves. The valves on the right side are the tricuspid; those on the 
left side, the bicuspid. By the contraction of the right ventricle the blood is pro¬ 
pelled to the lungs, by the contraction of the left ventricle it is propelled to all 
parts of the body. 

The Arteries are all those vessels which carry blood from the heart. Their 
walls are heavy and elastic, and the two arising from the ventricles have valves 
(semi-lunar) at these openings into them. They subdivide, and finally end in 
capillaries. 

The Capillaries are the smallest vessels of the body, being microscopic, and 
permeate nearly all its tissues. They form the only connecting link between the 
arteries and the veins. 

The Veins are all those vessels which carry blood to the heart. They origi¬ 
nate from the capillaries, and as there is no propelling organ to force the blood 
through them they are provided with valves, at varying distances, to prevent its 
backward flow. Their trunks are generally larger than those of the arteries; but 
their walls are thinner and consequently collapse when empty. They are found in 
nearly all the tissues of the body, and communicate with each other more frequently 
than do the arteries. 

Two Circulations. —There are two blood circulations—the Pulmonic, or 
lesser circulation , by which the blood is conveyed from the heart to the lungs, where 
it is purified, and thence returned again to the heart; and the Systemic, or greater 
circulation , by which the blood is carried to all parts of the body, to give life to its 
tissues, and to take up the waste matter, thence it is again brought back to the heart. 


THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


15 


SOME TRUNKS AND THEIR PRINCIPAL BRANCHES. 

ARTERIES. 


f Thoracic Branches . .. 


AORTA 


Abdominal Branches.. 


EXTERNAL CAROTID. 

1. Ascending Pharyngeal, pharynx. 

2. Superior Thyroid, thyroid gland. 

3. Lingual, tongue. 

4. Occipital, back of head. 

5. Facial: 

1. Ascending Palatine , palate. 

2. Tonsillar , tonsil. 

3. Submental , neck and jaw. 

4. Inferior Labial , lower jaw. 

5. Coronary Arteries , lips. 

6. Lateralis Nasi , nose. 

7. Angular , lachrymal gland. 

6. Posterior Auricular, ear. 

7. External Carotid ends in 
(0) Internal Maxillary: 

1. Tympanic , tympanum. 

Inferior Dental , lower jaw. 

( 3 ) Temporal: 

1. Anterior Temporal , temple. 

7 Posterior Temporal , temple. 


f CVvwwry.. i 

( Z<f// Coronary. 

Innominate . i Carotid - 

{ Right Subclavian. 

Left Carotid. 

-j Subclavian. 

Pericardic. 

Bronchial. 

(Esophageal. 

Posterior Mediastinal. 


Intercostal. 

j' Phrenic. f Gastric. 

Coeliac Axis .J Hepatic. 

Superior Mesenteric. [ Splenic. 
Suprarenal. 

-j Renal. 

Spermatic. 


Inferior Mesen teric. 

Lumbar. 

[ Sacra Media. 

INTERNAL CAROTID. 

1. Internal Tympanic, tympanum. 

2. Ophthalmic, eye. 

3. Anterior Cerebral, base of brain. 

4. Middle Cerebral, “ “ 

5. Posterior Communicating, base of 

brain. 

6. Anterior Choroid, base of brain. 

SUBCLAVIAN. 

1. Vertebral, spinal cord and brain: 

2. Internal Mammary, chest. 

3. Thyroid Axis: 

(a) Inferior Thyroid , larynx. 

(b) Transversalis Colli , muscles. 
(<r) Suprascapular , scapula. 

4. Superior Intercostal, upper ribs. 

AXILLARY. 

1. Superior Thoracic, muscles of 

shoulder. 

2. Acromial Thoracic, muscles of 
shoulder. 



















16 


THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


3. Thoracica Longa, muscles of shoul¬ 

der. 

4. Thoracica Alaris, muscles of shoul¬ 

der. 

5. Subscapular, muscles of shoulder. 

6. Anterior Circumflex, muscles of 

shoulder. 

7. Posterior Circumflex, muscles of 

shoulder. 

BRACHIAL. 

1. Superior Profunda, muscles of arm. 

2. Nutrient, humerus. 

3. Inferior Profunda, muscles of arm. 

4. Anastomotica Magna, muscles of 

arm. 

5. Muscular Branches, muscles of arm. 

6. The Brachial ends in the Radius 

and Ulna at elbow joint. 

RADIAL. 

Of fore-arm; 

1. Radial Recurrent, elbow-joint. 

2. Muscular Branches, muscles. 

3. Superficial Vol^:, thumb. 

4. Anterior Carpal, wrist. 

Of wrist; 

1. Posterior Carpal, wrist. 

2. Metacarpal, hand. 

3. Dorsales Pollicis, thumb. 

4. Dorsales Indicis, index finger. 

Of hand; 

1. Princeps Pollicis,' thumb. 

2. Radialis Indicis, index finger. 
Perforating, hand. 

4. Interosseous, hand. 

ULNAR. 

Of forearm; 

1. Anterior Ulnar Recurrent, mus¬ 

cles. 

2. Posterior Ulnar Recurrent, joint. 

3. Interosseous, muscles 

4. Muscular Branches. 

Of wrist; 

1. Anterior Carpal, wrist. 

2. Posterior Carpal, wrist. 

Of hand; 

1. Superficial Palmar Arch, hand. 

2. Deep Palmar Arch, hand. 

From the palmar arches the fingers 
are supplied by the Digital branches. 


INTERNAL ILIAC. 

1. Vesical Arteries, bladder. 

2. Middle Hemorrhoidal, rectum. 

3. Obturator, hip and thigh. 

4. Sciatic, back of hip and thigh. 

5. Gluteal, ilium, hip, and thigh. 

EXTERNAL ILIAC. 

1. Epigastric, abdominal walls. 

2. Circumflex Iliac, abdominal walls. 

FEMORAL. 

1. Superficial Epigastric, abdominal 

walls. 

2. Superficial Circumflex, groin. 

3. Pudic Arteries, groin. 

4. Profunda: 

1. External Circumflex , thigh. 

2. Internal Circumflex , i( 

j. Perforating Arteries, “ 

5. Muscular, “ 

6. Anastomotica Magna, tnigh and 

knee. 

POPLITEAL. 

1. Muscular Branches, thigh. 

2. Cutaneous, integument of leg. 

3. Superior Articular Arteries, 

knee-joint. 

4. Inferior Articular Arteries, 

knee-joint. 

5. The Popliteal ends in the Anterior 

and Posterior Tibial. 

ANTERIOR TIBIAL. 

1. Recurrent Tibial, knee-joint. 

2. Muscular Branches, various mus¬ 

cles. 

3. Internal Malleolar, ankle-joint. 

4. External Malleolar, ankle-joint. 

POSTERIOR TIBIAL. 

1. Peroneal, leg and ankle. 

2. Muscular Branches, soleus. 

3. Nutrient, tibia. 

4. Internal Calcanean, heel. 

5. Plantar Arteries, sole of foot. 

DORSALIS PEDIS 

1. Tarsal, ankle-joint. 

2. Metatarsal, top of foot. 

3. Interosseous, toes 

4. Dorsalis Hallucis, great toe. 

5. Communicating, sole of foot. 









THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


17 


VEINS. 

The superficial veins lie just beneath the skin, and gather the blood from it and 
from the tissues it covers. Then, communicating with the deep veins, they pour 
their blood into them. 

The deep veins accompany the arteries, and are usually inclosed in the same 
sheath with those vessels. With the small arteries, as the radial, ulnar, brachial, 
tibial, peroneal, they exist in pairs, one lying on each side of the artery, and are 
called vence comites. The larger arteries, as the axillary, subclavian, popliteal, and 
femoral, have, generally, only one accompanying vein. 

SOME VEINS AND THEIR BRANCHES. 

(The parentheses give the parts from which the blood is collected.) 

External Jugular receives: 

1. Posterior External Jugular, (back of neck). 

2. Anterior Jugular, (front of neck). 

Internal Jugular receives: 

1. Lingual Vein, (tongue). 

2. Pharyngeal, (pharynx). 

3. Superior Thyroid, (thyroid gland). 

4. Middle Thyroid, (neck). 

5. Occipital, (neck). 

Axillary Vein receives: 

1. Basilic, which receives: 

1. Anterior Ulnar, (hand and wrist). 

2. Posterior Ulnar, (back of hand). 

3. Median Basilic, (arm). 

2. Cephalic, which receives: 

1. Median Cephalic, (elbow). 

2. Radial, (fore-arm). 

Subclavian Vein receives: 

1. Axillary, (shoulder). 

2. External Jugular, (face, head and neck). 

3. Internal Jugular, (brain). 

. Iliac Vein receives: 

1. Femoral Vein, which receives: 

1. Saphenous, (surface of leg). 

2. Internal Iliac, (pelvis). 

Portal Vein receives: 

1. Gastric, (stomach). 

2. Gastro-Epiploic, (stomach). 

3. Splenic, (spleen). 

4. Superior Mesenteric, (small intestines). 

5. Inferior Mesenteric, (large intestines). 

The Superior Vena Cava is formed by union of 

1. Right Innominate, which receives: 

1. Right Jugular, 

Right Subclavian. 


2. 




/8 


THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


2. Left Innominate, which receives: 

1. Left Jugular. 

2. Left Subclavian. 

The Inferior Vena Cava is formed by union of 

1. Right Common Iliac, which receives: 

1. Right External Iliac. 

2. Right Internal Iliac. 

2. Left Common Iliac, which receives: 

1. Left External Iliac, (leg). 

2. Left Internal Iliac, (plev-s). 


LYMPHATICS. 


Thoracic Duct receives: 

1. Lacteals, (small intestines). 

2. Lymphatics forom Abdominal viscera and lower extremities. 

3. Lymphatics Thoracic viscera. 

4. Lymphatics from left side of head. 

5. Lymphatics from left arm, and empties all by a common opening into the 
left subclavian vein. 

The Lymphatics from the right side, right arm, and right side of head and 
neck, empty into the right subclavian vein. 


FOODS. 


To many young teachers outlines of the foods, of digestion, functions of 
organs, etc., may be of much service; they are therefore inserted. 

First . —Organic : 

1. Albuminoids or Proteids.—1. Albumen, (white of egg). 

{Nitrogenous.) 2. Fibrin, (muscle, blood). 

3. Gluten, (wheat). 

4. Casein, (cheese). 

2. Saccharine.—1. Starch, (corn, potatoes). 

{Carbo-Hydrates) 2. Juices, (fruits, stems, leaves). 

3. Sugar or Glucose, (cane, corn, beet). 

3. Oleaginous—1. Fats.—1. Stearine, (tallow, suet). 

{Hydro-Carbons.) 2. Margarine, (fats of animals). 

3. Butterine, (butter). 

2. Oils.—1. Oleine, (seeds, stems, leaves and animal fats). 









THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


19 


Second. —Inorganic : 

1. Water. 

2. Salt. 

3. Lime. 

4. Iron. 

5. Soda. 

6. Magnesia, etc. 

Third. —Condiments : 

Both Organic and Inorganic.—Salts, Spices, and Flavors. 


DIGESTION. 

First. — Apparatus : 

1. Mouth—Tongue, Teeth. 

2. Pharynx. 

3. (Esophagus. 

4. Stomach. 

5. Small Intestines—Duodenumun, Jejunum, Ileum. 

6. Large Intestines—Caecum, Ascending Colon, Transverse Colon, Rectum. 

7. Accessory Organs—Salivary Glands, Liver, Pancreas, Lining Membrane of 

Stomach, and Intestines. 

Second. — Fluids and their Functions: 

1. Saliva changes starches to sugar. 

2. Gastric Juice dissolves albuminoids and breaks vegetable and animal cells, 

setting free starches, fats, and protoplasm. 

3. Pancreatic Juice converts starch into sugar, proteids into peptones and fats 

into an emulsion or soap. 

4. Bile aids in the absorption of the fats. 

5. Intestinal Juices change starches to sugar, proteids to peptones, and oils 

and fats to an emulsion. 

'Third. —Absorption : 

1. The mouth takes up water, salt, sugar. 

2. The stomach takes up water, salt, peptones. 

3. The small intestines take up — 

1. By the portal vessels water, sugar, peptones. 

2. By the lacteal vessels emulsions, soaps. 

4. The large intestines—doubtful. 


The quantity of the digestive fluids secreted daily has not been determined with 
any degree of certainty. Authorities differ so widely in their estimates that no attempt 
is made to approximate them. It is sufficient at present to say, that together they exceed 
the quantity of food, both solid and liquid. 








20 


THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


CHANGES IN FOOD-STUFFS AFTER A FULL MEAL 


In the Mouth. —The food, as meats, bread, vegetables, etc., is here masticated. 
i. e., crushed and broken into small fragments, and at the same time, by the action of 
the tongue and cheeks, is thoroughly mixed with saliva from the salivary glands and 
from the mucous membrane lining the mouth. The starches of the food are readily 
dissolved and are here largely changed into grape-sugar. 

In the Stomach. —The presence of the insalivated food in the stomach congests 
its mucous coat and excites a copious secretion of the gastric juice, and by its stimulus 
to the filaments of the pneumogastric and sympathetic nerves produces in the muscular 
walls a slow, wave-like motion. By this motion the food is carried along the greater 
curvature of the stomach from the cardiac to the pyloric portion, and back again along 
the lesser curvature to the cardiac portion. In the progress of these revolutions the 
food is pressed firmly, and is turned over and over again until it is thoroughly mixed 
with the gastric juice issuing from the lining membrane to the quantity of several pounds. 
The time required for one of these revolutions of the food is from one to three minutes. 
The contents of the stomach now become more and more acid; the change of starch 
into sugar is lessened; but the fats, starches, and albuminoids are set free by the action 
of the gastric juice, dissolving the proteid envelopes in which nature encased them in 
the living animal or plant. Thus freed, the albuminoids (albumen, gluten, fibrin, case- 
ine, etc.) are exposed to the action of the gastric juice, which converts them into 
peptones. The food is now partly dissolved, forming a grayish liquid, and is called 
chyme , which is ejected, as the process goes on, through the pylorus into the duodenum. 
The peptones are soluble in water and easily pass through the moist membrane of the 
mucous coat, entering the capillaries of the portal vessels. 

In the Small Intestine. —The peristaltic motion of the small intestine is also 
due to the stimulus of the contents upon the filaments of the pneumogastric and sympa¬ 
thetic nerves. The food here comes in contact with the bile, the pancreatic juice, and 
the intestinal secretions. The combined action of these fluids is to convert the remaining 
starches into sugar, albuminoids into peptones, and to break up the fatty globules, 
forming of the latter a soapy or milky emulsion. This emulsion is capable of passing 
through the delicate walls of the villi, and is thence carried into the circulation through 
the lacteal vessels. 

In the Large Intestine. —The movements of the large intestine are less rapid 
and vigorous than in the small intestine, but are sufficient to move the contents forward. 
There is little digestion in the large intestine. The contents have become acid by 
fermentation. The principal function here is the absorption of the remaining liquids 
produced by the actions above described, rendering the residue somewhat compact, in 
which condition it enters the rectum. 


Good digestion to furnish material for blood, good lungs, liver, and kidneys to 
keep it pure, and a good heart to drive it to all the tissues, are things of vital importance 
to the well-being of man. 









THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


21 


SECRETORY ORGANS. 

These organs secrete from the blood and elaborate various substances for the 
nutrition and preservation of the body. They are: 

The Liver. Pancreas, Mucous Membranes, Salivary Glands, Mammary Glands, 
Lachrymal Glands, Miobomian Glands, Sebaceous Glands, Sudorific or Sweat 
Glands, Synovial Membranes, etc. 

EXCRETORY ORGANS. 

Lungs, Kidneys, Skin, Intestines. 


FUNCTIONS OF SOME PRINCIPAL ORGANS. 

The Liver: 

1. Forms and stores up glycogen. 

2. Gives out glycogen in the form of sugar when needed by the body. 

3. Changes the form and condition of the proteids of the portal blood. 

4. It elaborates the bile which aids in the absorption of fats. 

5. It forms urea out of compounds found in the blood. 

The Kidney : 

1. Secretes urea from the blood; the urea is manufactured in the liver and is 

always present in the blood. 

2. Probably forms urea from the nitrogenous compounds found in the renal 

blood. 

3. Filters from the blood various waste salts. 

4. Eliminates urine from the blood, which constantly passes through the ureters 

into the bladder, carrying with it salts, urea, and waste products to be 
thus cast from the body. 

The Skin : 

1. Is a protecting covering for the whole body. 

2. Is the most important organ of the sense of touch. 

3. Is the principal heat-regulating organ. 

4. Serves as a respiratory organ when kept clean. 

5. Secretes perspiratory fluid, or sweat. 

6. Excretes nitrogenous compounds and urea. 

7. Absorbs water to a limited extent. 

The Pancreas: 

Secretes the Pancreatic Juice, a colorless, odorless, viscid fluid with an alkaline 
reaction, hence, emulsifies the fats in digestion. 


Considered as a whole, the human body is the most remarkable in the animal 
kingdom. Its parts possess the widest range of adaptability and power. 

The head is the observer, the engineer, the sovereign, 

The trunk is the laboratory, and the power-house of distribution. 

The upper extremities are the procurers and defenders of the body. 

The lower extremities are the locomotors. 







MENSURATION. 

Plates 7 to 10 , Inclusive. 

Working by rule is out of date. Drill work in classes has been abused. 
Upon this machine work the most valuable days and evenjyears of scho ol life 
have been wasted. “Drill it into them” is only another way|of saying, “ Stultify 
their intellects.” The teacher who by tact and method, using proper objective 
means, leads the pupil to see , to think , and to understand the causes and relations 
of things, is a benefactor of mankind; and much more is he a benefactor if, plac¬ 
ing the means within the pupil’s reach, he induces thought and comprehension 
by the pupil’s unaided effort. Reach the understanding and the memory will 
take care of itself. 

Every new acquisition of the mind requires time. Time is an indispensable 
element. An idea may be grasped quickly, but to fully comprehend it in its 
aspects and relations, to round it out into a thought, purpose or system, requires 
a period of growth. Conclusions and judgments jumped at are often erroneous. 
These things may be observed in all the history of progress in every department. 
The student should have time to become familiar with the illustrations presented 
on the subjects he studies. The glance at the picture or object during a short rec¬ 
itation is not sufficient. In penmanship, mensuration, physiology, etc., he needs 
the illustration on the wall in easy view for weeks or months at a time. 

Mensuration is a subject that delights most pupils when the proper steps are 
taken to reach it. It should begin early in school life. As soon as the child 
knows the figures, the area of the rectangle may be computed. And as soon as 
the pupil needs to know other areas, or even solids, they should be taught. In 
no case should mensuration be deferred till the end of a text-book is reached. 
Pedagogically the mensuration of most regular forms of both areas^and solids 
should precede percentage, because it awakens more mental activity and is less 
abstruse. One or more of the plates should be on the wall of the school-room for 
a month at a time. Pupils will become familiar with them, and then taking up 
the subject they will more quickly comprehend all its parts and relations. 

Do nothing by rule. “When work by rule is done away with, work by prin¬ 
ciple is established.” Pupils will, with the aid of the plates, readily comprehend 
the reasons for all the processes. The reasons will be entirely conclusive; and 
in certainty, will fall little below geometrical demonstration. 

AREAS. 

Plate 1. 

The Rectangle is so simple that no discussion of it is needed. The pupil 
will readily see that there are five square units in the upper section, and that 
there are as many such sections as the rectangle is units in height, or six.; f Hence 
there are thirty square units in its area. 

The Cylinder. —The convex area of the cylinder may be explained by 
taking any cylindrical object and bending a piece of paper around it and marking 
and cutting the paper to fit. The form of the paper so cut is a rectangle, whose 
length is equal to the circumference of the cylinder, and whose height is the 
height of the cylinder. Hence the area of the convex surface of a cylinder is 
equal to the units in its circumference times the units in its height. 


THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


23 


The Parallelogram. —Have the pupils draw forms on paper similar to 
those on the plate. Then cutting them out, cut away the two triangles. Apply 
one of these triangles to the other; they will be found to coincide, hence they are 
equal. 

If, now, one of these triangles is fitted to one side of the paper from which 
it was cut, the resulting figure will be a rectangle. But if fitted to the other side* 
the figure will be a parallelogram. Hence the parallelogram and rectangle have 
equivalent areas. Therefore the area of the parallelogram is equal to the units 
in its base multiplied by the units in its height. 

The Parallelopiped. —All its faces are parallelograms, and their areas 
may easily be found by making the perpendicular measurements. 

The Triangle. —Have the pupils draw on paper, with great care, a rectan¬ 
gle, and draw its diagonal. Now, cutting out the rectangle, divide it on the line 
of the diagonal into two triangles. Apply one of these triangles to the other. 
They coincide, and hence are equal. That is, a triangle is one-half of a parallel¬ 
ogram, and its area must be one-half of the product of the units in its base by the 
units in its height. 

Have each pupil draw several parallelograms and cut each one into two trian¬ 
gles, testing their equality in each case. 

Any side of a triangle may be regarded as its base. 

By height, or altitude, is meant the perpendicular distance above the base. 

Figures are similar when their corresponding sides or measures are pro¬ 
portional. 

The Trapezoid is composed of two triangles each of whose altitudes is the 
perpendicular distance between its parallel sides. Its area, therefore, is the sum 
of the areas of the two triangles. Multiply the sum of the parallel sides by the 
units in altitude, and take one half the product. 

Plate 8. 

Irregular Tracts of Land are measured by laying off into triangles and 
taking the sum of the areas of these triangles. 

The Area of the Circle. —From the figure it is plain that the area of a 
circle is composed of a vast, infinite, number of triangles. And that the base of 
each triangle is in the circumference of the circle; hence the sum of all these 
bases is exactly equal to the circumference. It is also plain that the triangles 
have a common altitude; viz., the radius of the circle. Hence the area of the 
circle is the sum of the areas of all these triangles; and to obtain it, multiply the 
sum of the bases, or the circumference, by the units in the altitude, or radius, and 
take one-half the product. 

Require pupils to draw a circle, using a compass, and to cut it out; and then 
to make cuts from the center to, but not through, the circumference. They are 
thus impressed with the reasons for the process of finding its area, and are 
engaged at the same time in a highly educative exercise. 

The ratio between the diameter and circumference of any circle is 3.141592+ 
practically 3.1416. Each pupil can readily obtain this ratio correct to two deci¬ 
mal places, thus fixing it permanently in the mind. 





24 


THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


On a piece of thin cardboard let each pupil carefully draw a circle 4 or 5 
inches in diameter, then cut out the circle with great care. Now holding the 
circle in the hand, and starting at any marked point, bend around on the edge of 
the circle a narrow strip of writing paper, getting in this way the exact length of 
the circumference. Measure also the diameter very accurately. The quotient 
obtained by dividing the circumference by the diameter will be 3.14 if sufficient 
care has been taken. 

The Area of the Pyramid. —All sides of any pyramid are triangles, whose 
altitude is the slant height of the pyramid measured from the apex to the middle 
point of the lower edge. The base of the pyramid is also composed of triangles, 
as seen on the plate. Hence the area of a pyramid is the sum of the areas of all 
the triangles on its lateral surface and on its base. 

The Frustum.— The sides of the frustum of any pyramid are each com¬ 
posed of two triangles both having the same altitude; viz.,the slant height of the 
frustum; an upper edge being the base of one and the corresponding lower edge 
the base of the other. 

Hence to find its area multiply the sum of the upper and lower perimeters 
by the slant height, and take one-half of the product. 

The Cone. —The cone may be regarded as a pyramid having an infinite 
number of triangular sides and a circular base. Therefore its lateral surface is 
one-half the product of the units in its slant height multiplied by the units in the 
circumference of its base. The base being a circle, its area is readily found. 

The Frustum of a Cone. —It is plain from the figure given on the plate 
that the lateral surface in this case, as in that of the frustum of a pyramid, is 
made up of two sets of triangles of equal altitude. The sum of the bases of all 
these triangles is the sum of the upper and lower circumferences of the frustum. 
The area of the base is readily found, being a circle. 

Square Root. —Nothing new can be offered on the process of extracting 
the square root. Two methods of teaching the process are given in all practical 
and higher arithmetics. The mathematical method, in which the analysis of the 
square is made, and the parts composing it are set apart to develop a process, 
amounts to a demonstration. The mechanical method is simply an explanation 
by means of pieces of cardboard or wood. Both should be taught. 

SOLIDS. 

Plate 9. 

The Rectangular Solid.— A very interesting and valuable exercise for » 
small pupils is the drawing on paper of several figures of rectangular solids,, 
dividing their edges into units of convenient size, say one-fourth inch, marked by 
light dots. Lines are then drawn joining the dots on opposite edges, thus divid¬ 
ing the solid into cubic units. Each pupil then counts the cubic units in each of 
the two or more figures he has drawn and writes the number in each case below 
the figure. The pupils are now directed to find the product of the units in the 
three dimensions of each rectangular solid, and to write the products also under 
the respective drawings. The pupils will readily discover that the products are 




THIS STUDENT'S CABINET. 


in each case, the same numbers they obtained by counting. Again, direct them 
to find the areas of the bases, and to multiply these areas by the units in height 
of the respective figures. Here again the same results are obtained. The care¬ 
ful drawing of the figures is no less valuable and educative, than the discovery 
of the process of finding the solid contents is impressive. 

The Parallelopiped. —Here every side is a parallelogram and perpendic¬ 
ular measures must be used to find volume, as in the case of parallelograms. 

The Prism needs no discussion, the figure is sufficient for the pupil. It is 
plain that its volume is the product of the area of its base multiplied by the units 
in its altitude. 

The Cylinder. —In this case it is again plain that the volume equals the 
area of the base multiplied by the units in height. But the cylinder may also be 
regarded as composed of a vast number of prisms, which, being removed from the 
cylinder and placed together, as at A, produce a rectangular solid, whose three 
dimensions are one-half the diameter, one-half the circumference, and the height 
of the cylinder. The product of these three dimensions is the volume of the 
cylinder. 

The Pyramid. —Every pyramid is one-third of a prism. When all the 
dimensions of the prism are equal, this may be shown with blocks cut in equal 
sections; but that does not satisfy the mind when the dimensions of the prism, 
and consequently of its sections, are unequal. All that can be done is to indicate 
the sections into which the prisms may be cut into three equivalent pyramids, 
and leave the demonstration till it is reached in geometry. 

Since the pyramid is one-third of the prism, it is necessary to take one-third 
of the product of its base multiplied by the units in its height. 

The Cone may be regarded as a pyramid having an infinite number of sides. 
The same rule, based on the same reasons that apply to the pyramid, applies 
equally to the cone. 

Plate 10. 

Cube Root —As in square root there are two methods of showing the rea¬ 
sons for the process, so there are two in cube root. Both the mechanical expla¬ 
nation and the mathematical demonstration are given in all the practical and 
higher arithmetics, and hence they are omitted here. 

The illustration on this plate, if hung in view of the pupils, will render them 
so familiar with the parts and factors as to greatly facilitate their understanding 
of the process; and where the teacher has no blocks, they will save time and 
trouble of making drawings on the blackboard. Nothing new can be offered on 
the process of extracting the cube root. 

The Volume of the Frustum of a Pyramid. —From the figure it is plain 
that the volume of the frustum of any pyramid is equal to the sum of the vol¬ 
umes of three pyramids. These pyramids have the same altitude. The base of 
one is the upper base of the frustum, the base of another is the lower base of the 
frustum, and the base of the third is the mean proportional between the upper 
and lower bases. Hence the rule: Phnd the square root of the product of the 
upper and lower bases for their mean proportional. Multiply the sum of the 





26 


THE. STUDENT’S CABINET. 


upper base, the lower base, and the mean proportional by the units in the altitude, 
and take one-third of the product. 

For the demonstration of this rule the pupil must wait till he reaches it in 
geometry. 

The Frustum of a Cone. —The frustum of a cone may be regarded as the 
frustum of a pyramid having an infinite number of sides. Hence the process for 
finding its volume is the same as that for finding the volume of the frustum of a 
pyramid. 

The Area of the Sphere. —By geometry it is readily proved that the area 
of a sphere is equivalent to the area of the convex surface of the circumscribing 
cylinder. The convex surface of the cylinder is the product of the units in its 
circumference by the units in its altitude. But the circumference of the cylinder 
is the circumference of the sphere, and the altitude of the cylinder is the diame¬ 
ter of the sphere. Hence the area of the sphere is the product of the units in its 
diameter multiplied by the units in its circumference. 

The illustration given on this plate is intended to associate these two forms 
permanently in the mind. 

The Volume of the Sphere. —From the illustration it is clear that the 
volume of a sphere is composed of pyramids, each having its base in the surface, 
and its apex at the center of the sphere. The sum of the bases of all the pyra¬ 
mids is equal to the area of the sphere, and the common altitude of the pyramids 
is the radius of the sphere. It is also clear that the volume of the sphere is the 
sum of the volume of all the pyramids composing it. Hence the volume of a 
sphere is equal to the product of its area by one-half its radius. 

Comparison of Areas. —The square MN, on AB, is four times the square 
MO, on AO. But AO is one-half of AB. Hence the square on a line is four times 
the square on one-half of the line. Similarly it may be shown that the square on 
a line is nine times the square on one-third of the line, and so forth. 

The diameter is the only variable factor in the areas of circles. The ratio 
of the diameter to the circumference, 3.141b, is constant for all circles; hence the 
areas of circles vary as the squares of their diameters. Thus all similar areas vary 
in the proportion of the squares of their corresponding measures. 

The volumes of spheres and of all other similar forms of solids vary as the 
cubes of their corresponding measures. 




MECHANICAL DRAWING. 


Plate 13. 

Figure 1. To bisect a given line, AB. 

With A and B as centers, and with any convenient radius greater than half 
of AB, describe arcs cutting each other in C and D. The line joining C and D 
bisects AB in E. 

Figure 2. From a given point , P, outside of a given line , AB, to draw a per¬ 
pendicular to AB. 

With P as a center, describe an arc cutting AB in two points, C and D. Now 
bisect CD. The bisector will pass through P and be the perpendicular required. 

Figure 3. To erect a perpeyidicular at any point in a line, AB, as at its 
extremity. 

With any point, C, as a center and with a radius equal to CB, describe an 
arc DLBE. Through E and C draw a line cutting the arc at D. Join D and B. 
DB will be perpendicular to AB. 

Figure 4. 7 o draw an angle, M, equal to a given angle , A. 

Draw MN for one .side of the required angle. With A as a center, and with 
any convenient radius, draw the arc RS; and with 0 as a center, draw an arc 
cutting OP in P. Through P draw MPG. The angle GMN is equal to the 
angle A. 

Figure 4. To bisect a given angle , M. 

With M as a center, and any convenient radius, describe an arc PO. Now 
with P and O as centers, and any convenient radius, describe arcs intersecting in 
I. The line joining M and I will bisect the angle GMN. 

Figure 5. Through a given pomt, P, to draw a line parallel to a given 
line , AB. 

Through P draw any line, PC, to AB. And draw PG making the angle CPG 
equal to the angle PCB. Then GP will be the required parallel to AB. 

Figure 6. To divide a given line, AB, into any number of equal parts. 

In this case divide AB into six equal parts. From A draw any divergent 
line AH, and with the compass layoff on it from A six equal spaces of any con¬ 
venient length. Join the 6th space with B, and through the 5th space draw 5, 5, 
parallel to 6B. This gives on AB the length of one of the equal spaces. 

Figure 7. 7 o find the center of a circle. 

From any point in the circumference as D, draw two chords DE and DL. At 
the middle points of these chords erect perpendiculars; their intersection, C, is the 
center of the circle. 

Figure 7. To pass a circumference through any three given points , E, D, 
and L, 7 iot in the same straight line. 

Join ED and DL. From their middle points erect perpendiculars intersecting 
at C. With C as a center, and CD as a radius, describe the circumference BDL, 
which fills the requirement. 

Figure 8. To draw a spiral. 

Assume two points, A and B, in a line. With B as a center, and a radius 



28 


THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


AB, describe the arc I; then with A as a center, and 2AB as a radius, describe 
arc 2. Again with B as a center, an i SAB as a radius, describe arc 3; and so con¬ 
tinue till the spiral reaches the desired size. 

Figure 9. To inscribe a square in a circle. 

Draw a diameter, AC, and at right angles to AC draw a second diameter, 
BD. Connect the extremities of these diameters by lines, AB, BC, CD, and DA. 
These lines are sides of the square. 

Figure 9. To inscribe an equilateral triangle in a circle. 

With a radius equal to the radius of the given circle, lay off on the circum¬ 
ference the equal spaces pn, 7im, ml , Ik. Join kp, pm, and mk. These lines are 
sides of the required triangle. 

Figure 9. To inscribe an octago?i. 

Bisect the angle AOD, formed by two perpendicular diagonals, by the line 
tO. Join /A, id, etc. 

Figure 10. To draw an oval, having a give?i major axis , AB, and minor 
axis, CD. 

With O as a center, and a radius OC, describes the arc C3. Divide 3B into 
three equal parts, and make the spaces from 3 to 4 equal to one of these points. 
Lay off from O, OP and OP equal to 4B. With P and P as centers, and a radius 
equal to PP, describe arcs intersecting at m and n. From m and n draw indefi¬ 
nite straight lines through P and P. Now with P and P as centers, and with a 
radius AP, describe the arcs nAr and ^B/. And with m and n as centers, and a 
radius ?iO, describe the arcs rCs and uDt. 

Figure 11. To draw an egg oval, having given the minor axis , AB. 

Bisect the given axis, AB, in C. Through C, draw DE perpendicular to AB, 
With C as a center, and a radius equal to CA, draw an arc cutting DE in D. 
From A and B draw the indefinite lines AD and BD. With C as a center, and a 
radius equal to AC, describe the arc BE A; and with A and B as centers, and a 
radius equal to Dm, complete the oval. 

Figure 12. To inscribe a circle in a given triangle, omn. 

Bisect the angles m and n, the bisectors intersecting at C. From C drop a 
perpendicular, Op, to mn. With C as a center, and Op as a radius, draw the 
circle. 

Figure 12. To draw three circles of equal given radius, each tangent to the 
other two. 

Upon an indefinite line, mn, erect a perpendicular,/to. Bisect the angles 
opm, and opn. At the distance of the given radius from m?i, draw AB paral¬ 
lel to mn, and intersecting the bisectors in A and B. Now using A as a center, 
and AB as a radius, draw an arc cutting op in D. With A, B, and D as centers, 
and a radius equal to the given radius, describe the required circles. 

ISOMETRIC DRAWING. 

Isometric drawing is a method by which objects are shown in their real 
proportions. It is very simple and is largely used in making working drawings 
for mechanics. Fig. 13 is an isometric drawing of a cube. The cube is repre¬ 
sented as tipped forward on the lower corner, C, until the corner, O, comes in line 






THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


29 


with the eye of the observer and the lower opposite corner. This makes the 
boundary line of the cube a regular hexagon. The three edges, AO, OB, and 
OC, are called the Axes of the cube. In a drawing, all lines parallel to these 
axes are isometric lines, all lines not parallel to any one of them are called non¬ 
isometric lines. We start with these three lines in every isometric drawing ; the 
angles made by these represent right angles, though in fact they are angles of 
120°. 

The drawing is a real projection of a cube, and though none of the edges 
are projected in their true length, they have the true proportions. 

Figure 13. To draw an isometric cube. 

Describe a circle, and inscribe in it a regular hexagon. Draw the three 
axes, AO, OB, and OC. 

Figure 14. To draw an approximate isometric circle. 

First draw a face of a cube and its major diagonal. From the corners oppo¬ 
site the diagonal, draw lines to the middle points of the opposite sides, inter¬ 
secting the diagonal at m and n. With m and n as centers, describe the end arcs, 
and with O and E as centers, describe the side arcs. 

Figure 15. This figure is given to show some of the possibilities of the 
isometric system. All its lines are isometric lines. 

A, B, C, D, E, and F are representations of actual working-drawings made 
tor mechanics. The remaining figures have none but isometric lines. 



THE CHANGE OF SEASONS. 


Solar System.— The solar system comprises the sun and all the bodies that re¬ 
volve around it. Of the latter, there are eight major planets, and their twenty 
moons; about three hundred minor planets (asteroids), which move between the 
orbits of Mars and Jupiter; and more than a dozen comets, which com^ into our 
system and make the circuit of the sun. 

Sidereal Universe.— Nearly all the stars which we behold at night are situ¬ 
ated in space, billions of miles beyond the solar system, and are the suns of other 
systems like ours. They are called fixed stars, because their positions relative to 
each other change but little from century to century. They constitute the Sideral 
Universe. 

Positions and Motions of the Earth. —Now, see plate 20 , and conceive 
ourselves to be occupying a position in space, from which we can see plainly into 
the solar system; and let us give attention to the earth as it revolves around the sun. 

We may note many facts, especially the following : 

1 . That the earth revolves around the sun constantly in the same path, or orbit. 

2 . That wherever the earth is on its orbit, the plane of the orbit passes 
through the earth’s center, and also through the center of the sun. This plane is 
called the plane of the ecliptic. 

3 . That in one of these revolutions around the sun, the earth rotates upon its 
axis 366 times, in the same direction that it moves on its orbit; bringing all its 
sides into the sunlight 365 times, and producing as many days. 

4 . That the polar axis on which the earth rotates does not stand perpendic¬ 
ular to the plane of the ecliptic, but always has an inclination to it of nearly 23 ^°- 
This is called the inclination of the earth's axis. 

5 . That the earth’s axis always points nearly to the same fixed star (the north 
star, polaris) from all positions on the orbit; and hence does not always stand in 
the same relation to the sun. In other words, its direction at any one position is 
parallel to its direction at all other positions. This condition may be termed the 
parallelism of the earth's axis. 

6 . That the earth passes nearer the sun in one, the northern, part of its orbit 
than in the opposite part; but that it passes correspondingly quicker, so that it re¬ 
ceives no more heat in the aggregate in one part than in the other. Its nearest 
point to the sun is called Perihelion; its remotest, Aphelion. 

7 . That the line of sunlight shifts from a point 23 J 4 0 beyond the poles, alter 
nately, to a point 23 ^° to the opposite side, bringing the poles, alternately, into 
full sunlight for a considerable period. 

The point on the earth’s orbit where the sunlight falls 23 J 4 0 beyond the north 
pole is called, in the northern hemisphere, the sujnmer solstice; the point at which 
the sunlight does not reach the pole by 23 ^° is called the winter solstice. 

From these observations it is plain that four conditions are essential to the 
change of seasons; viz.: 

1 . The revolution of the earth around the sun. 

2 . The inclination of the earth’s axis to the plane of the ecliptic. 

3 . The frequent rotation of the earth on its axis. 

4 . The parallelism of the earth’s axis. 


THE MOON’S PHASES. 


The moon is the most beautiful and attractive object in our sky, and affords a 
great variety of investigation. From the motions and phases of the moon astron¬ 
omers ascertain the vicissitudes of the tides, the causes and times of eclipses and 
occultations, the distance of the sun and consequently the magnitude of the solar 
system. It also affords proofs of the form and motions of the earth. To understand 
the moon’s phases will be interesting to pupils. It will expand their knowledge, 
widen their views, and develop their thought. The moon is a globe about 2,000 
miles in diameter. Its distance from the earth is about 240,000 miles. It revolves 
around the earth from west to east in 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3 seconds. 
Though its orbit is an ellipse with respect to the earth, it is, in reality, an irregular 
curve, always concave toward the sun, and crosses the earth’s orbit every 13? nearly. 
Then the moon moves around the sun accompaning the earth, and if the earth were 
instantly blotted out of existence, the moon would continue to make her annual 
circuit of the sun; so perfectly are the laws and forces of nature adjusted. The 
moon revolves once upon its axis during a revolution around the earth. This keeps 
the same side of the moon toward the earth in all situations. If it had no rotation 
upon its axis, each revolution would bring all its sides around to our view. The 
moon possesses no light of her own, but is seen only by the sunlight it reflects; 
hence we see only that part of the lighted side which is toward us. This gives 
rise to the 

Phases of the Moon. —If we watch for the new moon we shall always first see 
it in the west in the evening, a very narrow crescent, the convex side of the cres¬ 
cent always standing toward the sun. Day by day this crescent widens as we see 
the moon higher in the sky. Finally we see the whole face of the moon, a perfect 
circle, in the east at sunset. The full moon appears in the east only when the sun 
is in the west. It then diminishes as it increased, showing first a gibbons face, then 
finally a crescent again, in the eastern sky near sunrise. The convex side of this 
crescent, as before, is toward the sun. When then, the moon is in the same direction 
as the sun, we cannot see any of that face upon which the sunlight falls; and when 
it is in the opposite direction from the sun, we can see the whole face lighted up by 
the sun. 

Sometimes between old and new moon, the moon passes between us and the 
sun, obscuring the sun’s disk or part of it, producing a solar eclipse. Sometimes 
near full moon the earth comes between the sun and the moon producing a lunar 
eclipse. The lunar eclipse is the shadow of the earth produced by the sunlight, 
falling upon the face of the moon rendering it too dark to be seen. In the case of 
the solar eclipse the moon passes across the sun’s disk hiding it from our view. 

The moon’s real path cannot be shown on the plate; size will not permit if. The 
inner circle represents the moon as it is—half lighted by the sun all the time. The 
outer circle represents it as we see it from the earth. 



THE PUBLIC LAND SURVEY. 


All pupils before leaving the public schools should be made acquainted with 
our land survey. In the Western and Southern States it is nearly uniform, and is 
easily understood. “ Geography should begin at home. ” The younger pupils can 
learn many facts about the section and township; and the older ones can better take 
the subject as it is here treated. Used as recreative object lessons, it will afford a 
most profitable diversion, and give true ideas of history, of directions and distances 
on the maps, and of the convergence of meridians, to say nothing of its practical use 
in life. 

History. —In the times of the proprietary, charter, and royal governments in 
the colonies, there was no system of land surveys. Astronomical lines were not 
observed, and tracts were cut into irregular shapes and made of the most varying 
sizes. These remain as they were in colonial times, as an atlas showing the counties 
and townships of the original States clearly indicates. 

After the Revolution the Continental Congress appointed a committee consist¬ 
ing of Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, Hugh Williamson, of North Carolina, David 
Howell, of Rhode Island, Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, and Jacob Read, of 
South Carolina, “ for the purpose of ascertaining the mode of locating and dispos¬ 
ing of the land in the western territory, and for other purposes therein mentioned.” 
This committee reported May 7, 1784, a plan by which the public lands were to be 
divided into ‘ 4 hundreds,” ten miles square, and each “hundred” into lots one mile 
square, and numbered from 1 to 100. This report was considered by the congress 
and the plan was amended. This amendment provided for the division of the pub¬ 
lic lands into “townships” seven miles square, with 49 sections each, and with each 
section divided into 2 lots of 320 acres each. On May 3, 1785, another amendment 
was suggested by James Monroe, making the township six miles square. Finally on 
May 20, 1785, a bill was passed making the township six miles square and dividing 
it into 36 sections, numbered as follows: beginning at the S. E. corner, the sections 
were numbered from south to north; section 7 being next west of section 1, and 
section 13 next west of section 7, and so on; section 36 being the N. W. section 
of the township. By this law eastern Ohio was surveyed. An act of May 18, 1796, 
provided for numbering the sections as they are at present; for a surveyor general; 
and for the survey of the lands northwest of the Ohio river and above the mouth of 
the Kentucky. No less than nine acts were passed up to 1875 affecting the public 
land survey, but it has remained practically as it was made 1796. 

By the ordinance of 1787, written by Nathan Dane, of Massachusetts, for the 
government of the Northwest Territory, section 16 was set apart for the mainte¬ 
nance of public schools. In 1852 an act was passed setting aside section 36, also for 
school purposes. These sections in each township are known as school lands. 

The system of the public land survey was probably devised by Gen. Rufus 
Putnam, a Revolutionary officer.* 


Hournal of the Association of Engineering Societies, Vol. 2, p. 282. 




THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


33 


Organization.— In 1796 a surveyor general was provided for. By act of 
Congress, 1812, the General Land Office was established and its commissioner was 
placed under the control of the Treasury Department. In 1836 the survey was re¬ 
organized and the commissioner was placed under the direction of the President, 
but the office remained under the Treasury Department. On March 3, 1849, when 
the Department of the Interior was established, the General Land Office was trans¬ 
ferred to it and still remains there. The officers of the General Land Office are the 
commissioner, assistant commissioner and chief clerk. By act of Congress it was 
provided that the President should, by and with the consent of the senate, appoint a 
surveyor general for each of the following states and territories: Louisiana, Fior¬ 
ina, Minnesota, Kansas, California, Nevada, Arkansas, Nebraska, Iowa, Dakota, 
Colorado, New Mexico, Idaho, Washington, Montana, Utah, Wyoming and Ari¬ 
zona. The surveyors general are under the direction of the Secretary of the In¬ 
terior, and each gives a bond of $30,000, and holds his office for four years. All 
surveyors general act under authority of the commissioner of the land office, who 
in turn is under the Secretary of the Interior. Each surveyor general employs 
deputies who are also under bond and oath and who do the field work, generally by 
contract at a certain sum per mile run. All field books and records made by the 
deputies have to be returned to the surveyor general who is required to make “fair 
plats" of the surveys, having the townships and fractional parts thereon, with a 
description of the corners; and to send copies of these plats to the General Land 
Office and to all land offices where the land in question is offered for sale. 

On the completion of the field work and the office work of making up the 
records in the district controlled by any surveyor general, he is required to turn 
over to the Secretary of State, or any officer authorized to receive them, all the 
field notes, maps, records and other papers pertaining to the survey included in 
his district. The transfer must be preceded, however, by an act of the state legis¬ 
lature providing for the receipt and care of such records. After the transfer the 
office of surveyor general is discontinued for such district. Kansas and the western 
states generally are all surveyed, and the surveyor general’s office in most of them 
has been discontinued, and the records filed with the secretaries of state. 

Each county surveyor’s office is supplied with a copy of these records so far as 
they affect his particular county. 

Surveys.— All surveys begin from an Initial Point , chosen with reference 
to the territory to be surveyed; and when possible, marked by some permanent 
natural object, as the confluence of two rivers, or an isolated mountain. From this 
point a true meridian is run due north and south. This is called the Principal Merid¬ 
ian , P. M., Fig. 1. On this meridian at half mile, mile, and six mile distances, the 
quarter section, section, and township corners are respectively located and marked. 
Stones, trees, stakes, or mounds of earth are used according to instruction given in 
the Surveyor’s Manual, for marking such corners. There are now no less than thirty- 
three principal meridians west of the Great Miami river. For the correction of errors, 
and to secure greater accuracy, other true meridians are run twenty-four miles apart. 

Through the initial point another line is run due east and west, called the Base 
Line , B. S., Fig. 1. The quarter section, section, and township corners are accur¬ 
ately located and marked on this line, as on the principal meridian. At distances of 
twenty-four or thirty miles north and south of the base line, other lines are run east 




34 


THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


and west, parallel to the base line; at the same distance from these others are run, 
and so on. These are called “Standard Parallels,” or “ Correction Lines,” S. P., 
Fig. i, and are run to make the proper corrections for the convergence of meridians 
toward the north. The corners are all marked on the correction lines in the same 
manner as on the base line. As all north and south lines converge northward from 
the base line, and from correction lines, the section lines will not close on the 
corners marked on the standard parallels or correction lines; but will strike these 
parallels east or west of the corner, according as the survey is made east or west of 
the principal meridian. 

The principal meridians, true meridians, base lines, and correction lines are 
astronomical lines. 

The Township.— When the above lines have been established, other lines are 
run north and south six miles apart, dividing the territory into “ Ranges,” R., 
which are numbered east and west from the principal meridian. Lines, also six 
miles apart, are run parallel to the base line dividing the territory into “ Towns,” 
T., which are numbered north and south from the base line. These range and 
town lines divide the territory into tracts about six miles square, which contain 
about 23,040 acres each, and which are commonly called congressional townships, 
to distinguish them from the civil townships , whose name and size are determined 
by local authority. The congressional and civil townships do not coincide. The 
civil townships are designated by name; as Grant, Jackson, White Rock, etc. The 
congressional townships are designated by numbers; as T. 9 N., R. 5 E. of 6 p. m., 
meaning town 9, north of the base line, in range 5, east of the 6th principal meridian, 
Figure 1 on this plat locates this township. 

The township is divided into thirty-six sections, each one mile square, contain¬ 
ing about 640 acres, and numbered as indicated in Figure 2. The surveyor who runs 
the exterior lines of the township is not allowed to subdivide it, but another is 
employed, that the work of the one may be a check to that of the other. 

The Section.— The legal subdivisions, and the only ones recognized by the govern¬ 
ment, are the section , quarter section, half-quarter section, quarter-quarter section, 
and fractional tracts which are necessarily made so by water courses and other 
natural conditions. Each section contains about 640 acres, and is divided into four 
quarters of 160 acres, more or less, each. These are again divided into eighths of 
the section, containing forty acres, more or less. 

In the government survey, however, only the section lines are run, but the 
section and quarter section corners are located and marked. If private parties wish 
the subdivision lines traced, they employ the county surveyor, who must be governed 
by the section and quarter section corners previously established by the government. 
These corners can, in no case, be changed whether they are incorrect or not. 

Deficiencies and Excesses.— In running lines various sources of error are 
met. The measuring chains are furnished by the surveyor general from the 
Department of the Interior, and are excactly sixty-six feet long; but in measuring 
lines, they cannot always be made to close exactly on the pre-established corners. 
Suppose a township is to be subdivided into sections; the surveyor starts at P., Fig. 
2, a corner established by the surveyor who run the township lines. From P. he 
surveys northward, marking the corners to the north line of the township. But 




THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


35 


when he measures the last mile from s to /, he finds that it falls short, or that it is in 
excess of exactly one mile. He, however, locates r j ust half a mile from s, making the 
S. ^ of the N. E. section mile wide by i mile long, thus throwing the error on the 
north half. Now the north half is divided by making the distance from r to u mile; 
by this process the deficiency or excess is all carried to the last quarter-mile tract on 
the north side of the township. The lots, then, on the north side of each township are 
all (except the west one) one mile long, but more or less than a quarter of a mile wide, 
as the case may be. 

Similar inaccuracies in measurement and the convergence of north-and-south lines 
cause excesses and deficiencies in running east-and-west lines. These are all carried to 
the west lots of the township in a manner similar to that in running the north-and-south 
lines. Figure 4 illustrates the varying measures of the northwest lots of the northwest 
section of a township. It will then be apparent that the northern and western lots of 
each township contain all the fractional tracts in the township. The records of all, with 
their numbers and exact areas, are kept at the county seat, the State capital, and in the 
Department of the Interior at Washington. 

Teachers should give their pupils abundant practice in locating tracts of all sizes, 
both north and south of the base line and east and west of the principal meridian. 

Following is a list of the principal meridians and bases : 

1st P. M. Long. 84° 51', North from mouth of Gt. Miami R., between O. and Ind. 

2nd P. M. Long. 86° 28', North from mouth of Little Blue R. Governs Ind. and part 
of Ill. 

3rd P. M. Long. 89° 10' 30", Through mouth of Ohio R Governs part of Ill. 

4th P. M. Long. 90° 29' 56", Through mouth of Ill. R. Governs part of Ill., Wis. and 
Minn. 

5th P. M. Long. 90° 58', Through mouth of Ark. R. Governs Ark., Ia., part of Minn. 

and Dak. Base due west from mouth of St. Francis R. 

6th P. M. 97 0 22', Begins on Ark. R. in Kans. Governs Kans., Nebr., Wy., Colo, 
and Dak. 


Michigan Meridian- 

—Long. 

84° 19' 9 ". 

Governs Mk.ii. Base 7 miles N. of Detroit. 

Tallahassee 

tt 

tt 

84° 18'. 

a 

Florida. Base through Tallahassee. 

Saint Stephens 

{< 

ie 

88° 2'. 

tt 

part of Ala. & Miss. Base 31 0 Lat. 

Huntsville 

it 

tt 

86° 31'. 

a 

part of Ala. Base N. line of Ala. 

Choctaw 

a 

It 

89° 10' 30". 

tt 

part of Miss. Base 29 miles S. Jackson. 

Washington 

ft 

It 

91 0 5 '- 

tt 

So W. cor. Miss. River. Base 3 1 0 Lat. 

Saint Helena 

i< 

a 

91 0 11'. 

tt 

La. East of Miss. River. Base 3i°Lat. 

Louisiana 

ti 

tt 

92 0 20'. 

tt 

La. West of Miss. River. Base 31 °Lat. 

New Mexico 

a 

tt 

106° 52' 9". 

tt 

N. Mex. and part of Col. Base J4°I9 'o 

Gt. Salt Lake 

it 

tt 

m° 53 ' 47 '. 

tt 

Utah. Base 40 0 46' 4". 

Boise 

u 

tt 

116 0 20'. 

a 

Idaho. Base 43 0 26'. 

Mount Diablo 

tt 

tt 

121° 54'. 

tt 

Nev. & Cent. & N.E. Cal. Base 37°5sV 

San Bernardino 

a 

tt 

n6° 56'. 

it 

Part of Southern Cal. Base 34°6". 

Humboldt 

tt 

tt 

124 0 11'. 

a 

N. W. Cal. Base 40 0 25' 3©". 

Willamette 

u 

tt 

122° 44'. 

u 

Ore. and Wash. Base 45 0 30'. 

Montana 

a 

tt 

II 1 ° 40 ' 54 ". 

a 

Montana. Base 45 0 46' 27". 

Gila and Salt R. 

tt 

tt 

H2° I 5 ' 46". 

it 

Arizona. Base 33 0 22' 57", 

Indian 

tt 

tt 

97 ° IS' 56 ". 

tt 

Indian Ter. Base 34 0 31'. 




THE TIDES AND THEIR CAUSES. 


The tides are the alternate rising and falling of the waters of the sea. They 
jccur twice daily. The rising of the water is called flood tide; the falling, ebb tide. 
When the waters reach their highest point the tide is said to be in , and it is called 
high water; and when they reach their lowest point it is said to be out , and it is 
called low water . The tides are irregular both in time and height at any given 
place. These variations correspond with the relative positions of the sun and moon 
in relation to the earth, and also with the positions of the earth on its orbit. The 
highest tide is called spring tide; the lowest, neap tide. Spring tide occurs only 
when the sun and moon are in conjunction or in opposition, see plate. Neap tide 
occurs when the moon is in quadrature; i. e., at first or third quarter. The rising 
and falling of sea waters at inteivals corresponding to the apparent daily motions 
of the sun and moon led the ancients to conjecture rightly that these bodies, in some 
unknown way, produced the tides. Modern astronomy affords a solution of the 
causes of the phenomena. 

Causes.— Attraction is the mysterious force which causes all bodies, when left 
free, to move toward each other. A ball thrown upward quickly returns to the 
earth. An apple or a nut loosened from the branch by frost or wind does not 
meander off oi upward in an undetermined direction, but instantly takes a vertical 
line toward the center of the earth. The force of attraction in its application to 
bodies at or near the earth’s surface is called gravity. The weight of any portion 
of matter, as a pound of tea, is simply the measure of the force with which the 
earth attracts it, the measure of gravity. Gravity brings down the drops of rain, 
holds the rocks and sands and waters in close embrace; and binds with unseen cords 
all moving creatures to the earth’s bosom. The force of attraction in its applica¬ 
tion to the vast bodies of the solar system and sidereal universe is called the attrac¬ 
tion of gravitation. After a research covering a period of sixteen years and result¬ 
ing in mathematical demonstration, Sir Isaac Newton announced to the Royal Society 
in 1683 his law of universal gravitation, viz: That every particle of matter in the 
universe is attracted by, or tends to gravitate to, every other particle of matter , with 
a force directly proportional to the mass and inversely proportional to the square of 
the distance. 

All bodies of the universe are moving in obedience to this law. Now the rela¬ 
tive masses and distances of the sun, earth, and moon, are such as to produce slight 
bulgings on the earth’s surface, most perceptible in the waters because of their 
fluidity. These bulgings are the tides. The moon is more effective than the sun in 
producing the tide; for, although its size is insignificant compared with that of the 
sun, its nearness causes it to act more upon the face of the earth than does the sun. 
The sun attracts the earth rather as a three-foot globe w T ould a pea at the distance 
of twenty-five feet; not affecting one side of it so much more than the other, the 
diameter of the earth being so small a fraction of the sun’s distance. “ The force 
of the sun to raise a tide is to that of the moon in about the ratio of two to five.”— 
Peabod v. 


THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


Now it is easy to see how the attraction of the sun and moon may produce a 
tide on the side of the earth toward them when they are in conjunction, see plate; 
or on the two opposite sides presented when they are in opposition. But how, 
when the sun and moon are in conjunction, a tide can be produced on that side of 
the earth from them, thus making two tides a day, is not so easily comprehended. 
The tide on the side of the earth not presented to these bodies is probably due to 
two causes: first, the unequal attraction of the moon for the two sides of the earth, 
because of their unequal distances from her; second, the centrifugal force, caused 
by the earth’s motion around the center of gravity between it and the moon. Re¬ 
garding the first cause, it is apparent from the law of gravitation that the difference 
of the moon’s attraction for the two sides of the earth would tend to elongate its 
form. The earth’s diameter is about 3^ of the moon’s distance; hence, by the law 
of gravitation, the moon’s attractive force is greater on that surface of the earth 
nearest it than at the center, and greater at the center than at the remote surface. 
The attractive force is about greater on the nearest than on the remotest surface. 
The tendency of this attractive force, acting unequally on opposite sides of the 
earth, although the force is exerted along the same line, must be to draw A , Fig. 2, 
toward M, and to shorten the diameter ts. As t and s lie outside of the line CM, 
the attractive force of the moon would tend to assist gravity in pulling them nearer 
the earth’s center. A bulge at B would thus be produced. This unequal attraction 
of the moon on the two opposite faces of the earth is probably the principal cause 
of the two tides daily. 

Regarding the second cause; suppose a rod joining the centers of the earth 
and moon, Fig. 2, is balanced on a support at g. This point, which is estimated at 
6,000 miles from the earth’s center, is the center of gravity of the earth and moon; 
and according to the law of gravitation both bodies would revolve around it as they 
progress on their courses round the sun. Now the centrifugal force at B will be 
very much greater than that at A , tending to lengthen the diameter AB, and shorten 
the diameter ts. The effect is to produce a bulge at B. This cause, however, 
must be slight as the earth’s motion about g is comparatively slow. 

Spring Tide.— At new moon the sun and moon act in concert to produce a 
high tide. When the moon is full, or is in opposition, the attractive forces are 
again acting on the same line, and again produce high tide. These are sprifig tide. 

Neap Tide.— When the moon reaches the first quarter her influence is, in a 
measure, neutralized by the sun which also produces a tide-wave. This reduces by 
one-third the moon’s tide-wave, thus making a very low tide called neap tide. 

As the distances of the sun and moon from the earth vary, so do tides. When 
the earth is in aphelion and the moon in apogee, the spring tides are proportion¬ 
ately low. But when the earth is in perihelion and the moon in perigee, they both 
exert their greatest force, and spring tide is then highest. When the solar and 
lunar tide-waves are near each other, high water falls between the two making one 
high tide for both waves. If, in this case, the lunar tide-wave follows the solar, 
which occurs just after new or full moon, high water comes earlier than the time 
fixed for a given port, and it is “prime tide. ” But if the lunar tide-wave precedes the 
solar, as occurs just before new or full moon, high water comes in later than the fixed 
time and the tide “lags.” The tides traverse the ocean from east to west, follow- 





THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


ing the apparent motion of the sun and moon. As the moon is the principal factor 
in producing the tides, and has a motion eastward around the earth, so the tide- 
wave is about fifty minutes later each day, and the interval between the two daily 
tides is about twelve hours and twenty-five minutes. In their westward course the 
tide-waves do not bear the waters along to any great extent, but draw them up 
vertically, in the ocean to the height of about three and a half feet, on an average, 
but along the eastern coast of the continents they are piled much higher. The tide 
rises at 

Charleston, S. C., - - - - 6 feet. 

New York, ------ 5 “ 

Boston, - - - - - - -10“ . 

Cumberland, head of Bay of Fundy, - - 71 “ 

Entrance Bay of Fundy, - - - - 18 “ 

In case the entrance to a bay, or arm of the sea, is wide and it contracts to a 
narrow point, the water is forced to rise extraordinarily high at its head. Inland 
lakes generally have no perceptible tides. The Mediterranean sea, however, being 
2,400 miles long has a tide one and a half feet high, though the swell of the sea 
does not enter it to any great distance, “A series of observations at Chicago, indicate 
a tide of one and three quarter inches, about thirty minutes after the moon’s cul¬ 
mination. ”—Peabody. 

As it takes time for the tide-waves to subside and the waters to regain their 
former level, and as the tides on the western coast of the continents are low, since 
the tide-waves start there; it follows that the average water level on the western coast 
is lower than on the eastern. The Gulf of Mexico is twenty feet higher than the 
Pacific on the same parallel. There is a similar difference between the level of the 
waters of the Red and Mediterranean seas. 

May not the western bound tide-waves assist in producing the ocean equatorial 
currents ? Is it not orobable that there are tides of the atmosphere as well as of the 
■>>cean waters ? 





HISTORICAL MAPS. 


Perhaps no one will question the value of maps in the study of history. The 
chief difficulty met with in compiling maps for the student’s use is to bring their 
size within the limit of convenience, and yet afford requisite space for the matter 
they are intended to present. Targe maps are of little value in a school-room; 
blackboard space is too important. If hung high, they cannot be studied. While 
closed up in a case they are of no service. The pupil needs the map more in the 
preparation of his lesson than does the teacher at the recitation. The boy or 
girl who becomes a scholar must be a student, and must have the means of study 
within ready reach. The acquirement of an intelligent knowledge of history is 
a big undertaking, even when every available means is obtained. The wonder 
is that our pupils learn as much as they do. 

Trial has proved that the size of these plates renders them available, both 
to the student in study and to the teacher at recitation. They constitute 
a progressive series. A persistent effort has been made to secure plainness, 
to avoid the confusion so common on maps. All matter has been omitted from 
each plate that does not pertain to the history of the period it is intended to 
cover; while forts, early settlements, etc., are not often repeated after their first 
location. Present State boundaries are represented by light dotted lines through¬ 
out the series, wherever they are needed to assist in locating places. Only the 
more important campaigns of the wars have been given; and, except on the war 
maps, mountains have been almost wholly omitted. Our territorial development 
has been presented to the fullest possible extent within a reasonable space. 
Many times as much could have been put upon these maps, but it would have 
been at the cost of perspicuity. The constant question was, “What can be omit¬ 
ted?” The great need has been more space for type-matter. This matter is to 
some extent supplied on the following pages. 

Most of the records of the early voyages were extremely meager. In per¬ 
haps most cases they have been lost, so that our only sources of information now 
are the writings of cotemporaneous or later authors. Not a few are thus left 
conjectural. The voyages of Columbus, however, are pretty well known. Fray 
Bartolomi de Las Casas, a cotemporary of Columbus, wrote a very full account 
of the voyages of the Great Admiral. He had the records made by Columbus 
himself, Mr. Otto Neussel, under the direction of the Royal Hydrographical 
Society of Spain, compiled from the records of Las Casas a map of Columbus’s 
voyages, published in El Ceiitenario , 1892 , at Madrid. This map, which is doubt¬ 
less the most correct one made, and the series of articles in El Centenario , 1892 , 
have been the principal authorities used in tracing the voyages and explorations 
of the Spanish. For the voyages of other nations, and the remaining data gen¬ 
erally, we have relied on American authors. 

All land claims were based upon discovery and occupation, and by the laws 
of European nations the titles vested in each case in the sovereign. No bound¬ 
ary lines were established till 1768 . The Mississippi River, by the treaty of 
Paris, closing the French and Indian war, became the boundary line between the 



40 


THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


Spanish and English American possessions. By that treaty France gave up all 
her claims in the Western Hemisphere save two small islands, St. Pierre and 
Miquelon, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and a few islands in the West Indies. 
England secured Canada and the French claims east of the Mississippi River. 
Spain took all west of the “Father of Waters,” and ceded Florida to England in 
exchange for Havana, which the English had captured late in the war. The 
English claims now extended from Florida Keys to the North Pole, and from the 
Atlantic to the Mississippi, and northwestward to the Pacific. The Spanish claims 
extended from the Isthmus of Panama to the Mississippi and the tributaries of 
the Columbia. English fur-traders soon occupied the region from Hudson’s Bay 
and the Great Lakes westward, till finally, in 1792 , they reached British Columbia 
and Oregon. Captain Cook’s expedition, 1788 (see Map No. 1 ), and the so-called 
occupation of the fur-traders, constituted England’s claim to the Pacific coast and 
Oregon. In the absence of treaties defining boundary lines, explorers and occu¬ 
pants regarded the natural highland, or watershed, determined by river courses, 
as the boundary. Thus the French had claimed western Pennsylvania and north¬ 
ern New York as belonging to New France. The original English grants 
extended westward in many cases to the Pacific Ocean. But notwithstanding 
this, when the French and Indian war had been brought to a successful termina¬ 
tion, the king of England, by royal decree, limited the jurisdiction of all his 
American Colonies except Georgia to the Atlantic slope; reserving to himself all 
control of the fertile region from the Alleghanies to the Mississippi River. In 
1774 he added what we call the Northwest Territory to the jurisdiction of Quebec, 
and fixed the boundary line of East Florida, where it is now. The king expected 
to increase his treasury by making new grants of the western lands. When the 
Colonies secured their independence, each revived its western claim as far as the 
Mississippi—the former limit of English jurisdiction. These claims are shown on 
Map No. 5 , and also the dates of their cession to the United States. After the Rev¬ 
olution these western lands were ceded to the United States, because it assumed 
the war debts of the Colonies, and needed the proceeds of their sale to meet pay¬ 
ments. Kentucky and Tennessee, however, had been nearly all granted to set¬ 
tlers by Virginia and North Carolina, so that there was practically no income 
from them after they came under federal control. Georgia did not cede her 
western claims till 1802 , then the United States paid $ 6 , 200,000 for her title to 
Alabama and Mississippi. The negotiation was effected after long and acrimo¬ 
nious dispute, involving the Florida and Louisiana boundaries, Indian reserva¬ 
tions, and grants made to settlers. The territory north of the Ohio River—the 
Northwest Territory—was governed by an ordinance written by Nathan Dane of 
Massachusetts and adopted by act of Congress June 13 , 1787 . Excepting the 
Constitution, this ordinance is probably the most celebrated document ever writ¬ 
ten in this country. Besides many other provisions salutary to the highest 
development of a community, it declared that neither slavery nor involuntary 
servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been 
duly convicted, should ever exist in the Northwest Territory, and that every six¬ 
teenth section of land should be devoted to the maintenance of public schools. 
No similar law was enacted for the southwest territory, but territorial governments 



THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


41 


were organized, as shown on Map No. 6. By charters, grants, and decrees the 
western boundaries of New Hampshire, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Pennsylva¬ 
nia, and Delaware had been fixed: hence these Colonies could not expect to assert 
claims farther westward. For this reason they insisted that the other Colonies 
should relinquish their western claims. The western claims were unjust. All 
the Colonies had sacrificed life and treasure for the title to and independence of 
the whole country, and it was but just that all should now share in the reward. 

These western lands were surveyed by the government system (except east¬ 
ern Ohio), and were then sold generally at $ 1.25 per acre. The Homestead Bill 
was not passed till 1862 . 


Original colonial boundaries were long a source of the bitterest controversies. 
The old charters and royal documents were the only evidences of State lines. 
But the king and his advisers were utterly ignorant of the geography of North 
America; hence, the grants often overlapped each other, or were so indefinitely 
stated as to result in inextricable confusion. 

New York claimed to have no western boundary; but, in 1781 , gave up to 
the United States all her claims west of her present limits, and urged the other 
Colonies to follow her example. But Massachusetts claimed western New York. 
New York bought the claim. This left the triangle, now Erie County, Pennsyl¬ 
vania, an isolated possession of Massachusetts, claimed also by Connecticut and 
Virginia. These Colonies having ceded all their western lands to the Federal 
Government, Pennsylvania, in 1792 , purchased the triangle, 315 square miles, of 
the United States for $ 150 , 640 . 25 . Connecticut claimed also the Wyoming settle¬ 
ment in Pennsylvania, but the claim was given up. When Connecticut ceded her 
western lands in 1786 , she reserved till 1800 a strip 120 miles long on the south 
shore of Lake Erie. This strip was reserved for revenue and was always known 
as the “Western Reserve.” Virginia also retained a reservation north of the 
Ohio for bounty lands. 

Vermont was persistently claimed by both New Hampshire and New York* 
It was a part of the Plymouth Company’s grant, but was also included in the 
grant made to the Duke of York. However, New Hampshire sold a large part of 
it to settlers who were known as the “Green Mountain Boys,” and who refused 
to recognize the authority of New York. In 1777 they formed a State government 
of their own. New York finally gave up her claim in 1792 , and Vermont was 
then admitted to the Union. The Province of Maine was also a part of the 
Plymouth Company’s grant, and by the charter granted 1691 , by William and 
Mary, it, with Nova Scotia and Plymouth, became a part of the Massachusetts 
Bay Colony. Nearly two hundred years later the population had grown so dif¬ 
ferent in institutions and interests from that of Massachusetts, that, in 1820 , they 
asked for separation, and Maine was admitted to statehood. Its eastern and 
northern boundaries were matters of dispute with England (see Map No. 7 ). So 
excited was the controversy that forts were built, and General Scott was sent by 
President Van Buren to maintain peace. The boundary line was settled in 1842 . 

New Jersey was a part of the grant to the Duke of York, who in turn granted 
it to his favorites Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. These proprietors 




42 


THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


divided the region lengthwise on the median line, Carteret taking East Jersey, 
and Berkeley West Jersey. Thus there were two Jerseys from 1676 till 1702 . 
West Jersey was soon sold to a company of Quakers. As no line had been run 
between East and West Jersey, settlers in the interior often claimed the same 
tracts of land by right of the patents they had secured from the proprietors. 
Finally, in 1702 , all the proprietors gave up their rights to the queen and New 
Jersey was made a royal province. The titles of settlers had to be determined 
in the courts. 

The boundaries of Pennsylvania and Maryland were also confused. The 
services of Admiral Sir William Penn in the British navy had won for him the 
favor of the sovereign, who was indebted to him about $ 75 , 000 . Upon the death 
of Admiral Penn, his shrewd son William succeeded, not only to the estate of 
his father, but to the king’s favor. William Penn had a great scheme of coloniza¬ 
tion. In youth he had become a Quaker, and his ardent religious convictions 
led him to seek a home in America for his persecuted brethren. The king’s 
debt to Penn was paid by a grant of 48,000 square miles of land fronting on the 
Delaware River, and covering three degrees of latitude, and five of longitude, 
excepting a small district around New Castle. Under this grant Penn claimed the 
lands on the Delaware. He wanted the shores and waters of the Delaware to the 
ocean, though settlement had been made by the Dutch and the Swedes. His 
claims were granted. Thus, though the three counties of Delaware were annexed 
to Pennsylvania, they were held by a different tenure. Lord Baltimore, after 
attempts at settlement in Newfoundland, desired “a precinct” in the more genial 
climate of Virginia. Accordingly, King James I. granted him the region named 
Maryland, in honor of the queen. It was bounded on the north by the 40 th par¬ 
allel—the southern boundary of the Plymouth Company’s grant—and extended 
westward to the extreme source of the Potomac, thence southeast along the right 
bank of the Potomac to a specified point, thence east to the Atlantic Ocean. But 
the London Company’s grant, or the grant to that branch of the London Company 
settling Virginia,extended from the 34 th to the 41 st parallel; and though the char¬ 
ter of Virginia had been revoked, the people of Virginia claimed the region 
within the charter limits. These conflicting claims involved Pennsylvania, Ma¬ 
ryland and Virginia in long dispute. The claims of Virginia were presented to 
the English court by William Clayborne, but the Potomac remained the southern 
boundary of Maryland. The boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland was 
not settled till 1763 . That year a survey was begun by Mason and Dixon, two 
eminent English surveyors; and by 1767 the boundary between Maryland and 
Pennsylvania was marked by a line of stones set five miles apart, and two 
hundred miles long, the Pennsylvania side bearing the coat-of-arms of Penn, 
and the Maryland side that of Lord Baltimore. This line, known as Mason 
and Dixon’s Line, later became famous as the boundary line between the slave 
and free States. 


The public domain has comprised all the lands belonging to the people of 
the United States, except the thirteen original States as they existed prior to the 
Civil War, and the present State of Texas, which had a land system of its own 



THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


43 


at the time of annexation. The original area of the United States was about 
830,000 square miles. Its limits were roughly defined by the treaty of Paris. 
September 3, 1783, by which the title descended from England to us. The fol¬ 
lowing acquisitions have since been made: 

The Louisiana Purchase, April 30, 1803, 1,182,762 square miles; cost 
$27,267,621.98, or three and three-fifths cents per acre. 

The Florida Purchase, February 2,1819, 59,268 square miles; cost $6,489,768, 
or seventeen and one-tenth cents per acre. 

The annexation of Texas, December 29, 1845, 274,356 square miles. 

The California Purchase, February 2, 1848, 522,568 square miles; cost 
$15,000,000, or four and one-half cents per acre. 

The Gadsden Purchase, December 30, 1853, 45,535 square miles; cost 
$10,000,000, or thirty-four and three-tenths cents per acre. 

The Oregon Country, 250,000 square miles. Title acquired: 

By discovery, Captain Gray, 1792; 

By exploration, Lewis and Clarke, 1805; 

By settlement, 1811; 

By treaty with Spain, 1819. 

The Alaska Purchase, March 30,1867, 577,390 square miles; cost $7,200,000, 
or one and nineteen-twentieths cents per acre. 

Annexation of Hawaiian Islands, July 7, 1898, 6,760 square miles; popula¬ 
tion 109,020. 

The Puerto Rican Indemnity, December 10, 1898, 3,670 square miles; popu¬ 
lation 806,708. 

The Philippine Purchase, December 10, 1898, 114,326 square miles; cost 
$20,000,000, population 7,000,000. 

(An additional map of the new acquisitions will be issued as soon as they 
are definitely determined.) 



POLITICAL PARTIES. 

Plate 40. 

Party principles were not expressed in a formal and authoritative way until 
1832. Speeches in Congress and legislatures and articles in newspapers, pam¬ 
phlets, and journals were^the only indices of political winds. The early Presidents 
were generally nominated by caucuses of congressmen. By and by various 
assemblages gave expression to the political sentiment in certain localities. The 
Clintonian convention in New York, 1812; the Hartford convention in Connec¬ 
ticut, 1815; and the Anti-Masonic convention in Philadelphia, 1830, were such 
assemblages. The first convention called together in modern form, in which 
seventeen States were represented, met in Baltimore, December 12, 1832, and 
under the name of the National Republican Party framed a platform of political 
principles. Since that time conventions have nominated all the Presidents; but 
the platforms as well as the deliberations of the early conventions “partook more 
of a personal character, than of a character of creeds.” 

When the Federal Constitution was made, the experiment of government 
under it was a matter of apprehension by some of the most enlightened men of 
the time. Its ratification was vigorously opposed by those who thought it placed 
too much power in the hands of the central government, curtailing the rights 
and powers of the independent States. Two parties thus existed from the begin¬ 
ning—the Federal, in favor of ratification, and a strong central government; and 
the Anti-Federal, in favor of modifying the Constitution so as to limit the Fed¬ 
eral power to a degree that all danger of oppression would be avoided. After 
the adoption of the Constitution, Hamilton became the leader of the Federalists, 
and Jefferson of the Anti-Federalists. The former advocated a liberal interpre¬ 
tation of the Constitution; the latter, a strict interpretation. Both of these men, 
holding diametrically opposite views, were members of Washington’s cabinet. 

The Federalists and Anti-Federalists. —The Federalists held that there 
were powers plainly implied by the Constitution which were not expressed; that 
a granted power implied the power of its execution. The Anti-Federalists held 
that the powers not expressly granted were denied. The Federalists held that 
where doubt existed as to the power of Congress or of the executive, it was the 
right of the federal government to define the limits of its authority, and the 
constitutionality of the acts of its departments. The Anti-Federalists held that 
the right of defining the constitutional limits of the authority and powers of 
Congress and the President rested with the legislatures, executives, and judiciary 
of the States; and that each State was a sovereign community, and had the right 
to resist all forms of oppression by the central government. The Anti-Fedeialists 
favored their recent ally, France, and desired to give her assistance in some form. 
The Federalists favored a strict neutrality. The Anti-Federalists held that the 
judiciary should be elective, and their terms of office limited; that the executive 
power should be vested in a board or cabinet of several members, to avert the 
dangers of concentrated authority. The Federalists held that the judiciary should 


Ojf'-J 


THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


45 


be placed above the vicissitudes of political strife and the influence of elections ; 
and that there should be one executive head, but for limited terms of office. 

The Democratic-Republican Party. —The Anti-Federal party was the 
father of the Democratic-Republican party, which held to the same doctrines. 
But time developed new issues, and modified old doctrines. The founder of the 
new party, Thomas Jefferson, gave it its name. The members were often called 
Jeffersonian Republicans, but later the term “Republican” was dropped, and the 
name “Democratic party” was applied. This name is still retained, and with it 
some of the fundamental doctrines of its ancestors. 

The Democratic-Republicans opposed public debt, opposed the expenditure 
of public money for any project of internal improvement, for enlarging the navy, 
or for coast improvements, or for coast defenses. They opposed life terms for the 
judiciary, and the exercise of any functions of the government in aid of private 
enterprise. They opposed the chartering of the national bank as not warranted 
by the Constitution. They favored easy naturalization laws; the frequent elec¬ 
tion of judges of all the federal courts, and direct taxation of the people to defray 
the expenses of the government, administered in the most economic way. The 
powers granted to the federal government by the Constitution were to be limited 
by a strict interpretation, and the federal power was to be subordinate to that of 
the States, unless expressly granted in each case by the Constitution. They 
were known as “Strict Constructionists.” The doctrine of State rights was 
evinced in the “Resolutions of 1798,” written by Jefferson and passed by the 
legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky. These principles were embodied in the 
later platforms of the party. 

The Democratic Party. —Thomas Jefferson and his successors found strict 
construction in some instances impracticable. The Democratic party modified 
the old views to meet the demands of the times. Any party must keep abreast 
of the progress of thought and development of the country, or be superseded by 
another. But although the Democratic party has held widely different and even 
opposite principles in the course of its long history, to serve its purposes amid the 
changing vicissitudes in the country’s progress, it has never passed very far the 
boundaries it originally adopted. The doctrines of strict construction of the Con 
stitution, sovereignty of the States, limited expenditures for public improve¬ 
ments, economic administration, remain fundamentally the same. 

The National Republican Party came into existence in the first Balti¬ 
more convention, 1832. The name “National'’ was applied to distinguish it from 
the “Democratic-Republican” party. It was the old Federal party modified. 
After arraigning the existing administration as narrow, corrupt, and incompe¬ 
tent, it made a protective tariff the key-note of its platform. Clay s Amer¬ 
ican System” was made the “ism.” It also advocated internal improvements, 
the necessary but economic expenditure of the public money; honest and pure 
administration ; and those matters usually put into platforms to-day. 

The Whig Party adopted its name from the Whig party of England, which 
opposed the tyrannical acts of the king. The personal and arbitrary policy of 
President Jackson were obnoxious, not only to the National Republicans, but to 
a large faction of the Democratic party which had placed him in power. They 




46 


THE STUDENT’ > CABINET. 


regarded his arbitrary acts as tyrannical, and dangerous to American institutions. 
In Monroe’s administration the policy of high tariff and internal improvements 
had begun. In 1828 a new tariff of still higher duties was adopted, and the 
increased revenue was spent in constructing and improving the great high¬ 
ways, deepening rivers and harbors, erecting light-houses and building canals. 
This combined policy of high tariff and internal improvements was known as 
‘The American System,” and was the policy to which the “Whig party,” born 
in 1834, was devoted. In all respects the principles of the Whig party were the 
same as those of the extinct Federalists, and the late National Republicans. 

The Anti-Mason Party held that no Free-Mason should hold any import¬ 
ant office. Such men as William H. Seward, Thurlow Weed, and Millard Fill¬ 
more early became leaders in this party. In 1832 it nominated William 
Wirt, of Maryland, for the presidency, and from the defeat it sustained the party 
never completely rallied. But it caused the Whigs, in 1838, to nominate Harri¬ 
son, who was not affiliated with the order, over Clay, who was their real prefer¬ 
ence, but who was a Mason. The Anti-Masons merged into the National Repub¬ 
lican party just when the latter was becoming Whig under the leadership of 
Henry Clay. 

The Liberty Party organized with the radical opponents ot slavery, led by 
William Lloyd Garrison and others. In 1840, it had reached sufficient strength 
to nominate a candidate for the presidency. The nominee was James G. Birney 
Mr. Birney had been a slave-holder in Alabama, but, having been converted to 
the cause of emancipation, freed his slaves in 1834, and removed to Cincinnati, 
where he published The Phila?ithropist, a newspaper devoted to emancipation. 
Here he was several times mobbed, and finally his type and presses were destroyed 
by the friends of slavery. He now w 7 ent to New York and became a very active 
member of the American Anti-Slavery Society. The radical principles of the 
Liberty party were opposition to slavery, prohibition of the slave trade, and the 
gradual extinction of the institution. They joined the Free-Soil party in 1848, 

The Barn-Burners. —In 1848 a large faction of the delegates to the Dem¬ 
ocratic convention in Baltimore withdrew wdien they saw that their candidate 
Mr. Van Buren, could not be nominated. This faction was called Barn-Burners, 
because it was said they would destroy their party to get rid of principles to which 
they objected—“Burn the barn to destroy the rats.” They opposed the extension 
of slavery into the new territory acquired by the treaty with Mexico. The} 7 met 
with the delegates of the Liberty party at Buffalo and nominated Martin Van 
Buren for President, and Charles Francis Adams for Vice-President, under the 
banner of the Free-Soil party. 

The Free-Soie Party. —As the name iudicates, the Free-Soilers were 
opposed to the extension of slavery. In their platform they announced their 
doctrine to be, “No interference by Congress with slavery within the limits of any 
State; no more slave States, and no more slave territory.” They favored a low 7 
tariff. The Free-Soilers were absorbed by the Republican party when it nomi¬ 
nated John C Fremont for the presidency. 

The Know-Nothing or American Party had its origin in the long-held 
conviction that the ballot should be held sacred to native-born Americans. The 



THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


47 


dissolution of the Whig party set adrift a large class of voters who needed only 
a little excited solicitation to ally themselves with a new organization. The 
Know-Nothings organized secret lodges, with pass-words and grips, and were 
sworn to vote for no one for any public office who was not native born. They 
held that citizenship, so far as the right to vote was concerned, should not be 
conferred until after a residence of twenty-one years. They were peculiarly hostile 
to the Catholics, and claimed that the priests controlled the Catholic vote. The 
sentiment regarding nativity is an old one and was evinced in the Constitutional 
convention when that body agreed that the President must be a native-born 
American. The Know-Nothing party grew with marvelous rapidity, but, its 
tenets being narrow and unjust, it soon lost influence. 

The Republican Party. —The first use of the name “ Republican” by an 
anti-slavery organization was made by the State convention held at Jackson, 
Michigan, June, 1854. A few T weeks later the name was adopted by most of the 
States from Maine to Iowa. Its leaders were the anti-slavery element of the 
Whig party, including Sumner, Greeley, Seward, Chase, Wade, Chandler, Fes¬ 
senden, Lincoln, and many others of national reputation. It opposed the exten¬ 
sion of slavery by the repeal of the Missouri Compromise; held that Congress 
had the right to prohibit slavery and polygamy, “twin relics of barbarism,” in 
the Territories; favored the admission of Kansas as a free State; denounced the 
Ostend circular; asked for a railroad to the Pacific coast, and held that the Gov¬ 
ernment ought to aid it in construction. It resolved that expenditures for the 
improvement of rivers and harbors are authorized by the Constitution. At Phil¬ 
adelphia, June 17, 1856, the party nominated its first candidate for the presidency, 
John C. Fremont. The Republican is the modern Federal party. 

The Liberal Republican Party made its appearance by the withdrawal 
of several old Republican leaders from their support of Grant’s administration. 
Among their number were Senators Sumner, Schurz and Trumbull. They 
regarded Grant’s policy toward the South as unwise and unfavorable to reconcil¬ 
iation and good feeling. Many conscientious Republicans, dissatisfied with the 
President’s appointments, advocated the establishment of a system of civil service 
reform. Grant’s project for the annexation of San Domingo had also tended to 
alienate the disaffected element. This faction met in convention in Cincinnati in 
May, 1872, and nominated Horace Greeley, over Charles Francis Adams, who it 
had been expected would be nominated on the first ballot. In their platform the 
Liberal Republicans demanded that sectional interests should be buried; that 
good will and fellowship should be cultivated; that civil service reform be under¬ 
taken ; that specie payment should be immediately resumed; and that the late 
•constitutional amendments should be regarded as the final settlement of all war 
difficulties. 

The Constitutional Union Party was a fusion of the stubborn element 
of the Whigs with the remnant of the Know-Nothings. The party avowed that 
it recognized no “political principles other thtn the Constitution of the country, 
the union of the States, and the enforcement of the laws.” This last phrase 
referred to the Fugitive Slave law. In convention at Baltimore, 1860, it nominated 
John Bell, of Tennesse, for President, and Edward Everett, of Massachusetts, 



48 


THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


for Vice-President. It polled but a small vote, carrying Virginia, Kentucky and 
Tennessee. 

The Greenback Party was organized in 1876, with the fundamental doc¬ 
trine that the Government of the United States should issue a volume of paper 
currency sufficient to meet the increased demand for a circulating medium, and 
to avert the danger of a financial crisis in the future. The theorists were called 
Greenbackers, because a green color was stamped on the back of the national 
bank notes then in use. They believed that the stamp of the Government was 
all the paper needed to make it as good as gold for a medium of exchange. It 
was the “Ohio idea” resurrected. 

The National Christian Party held that there should be a constitutional 
recognition of God and the Sabbath day. They demanded prohibitory liquor 
laws, and denouced all secret societies. James Black was the presidential candi¬ 
date nominated in 1872. 

The Prohibition Party demanded a constitutional amendment prohibit¬ 
ing the liquor traffic. Charles Francis Adams, of Massachusetts, was the first 
nominee, 1872. 

The People’s Party, or Populists, originated from the Union Labor party, 
augmented by other large and discontented elements. It contained most of the 
survivors of the old Greenback party. Financial depression and crop failures in 
the West and South bred hard times, a condition always favorable to the devel¬ 
opment of new parties. The crisis came nearly a year after the party had nom¬ 
inated James B. Weaver, of Iowa, for the presidency. The panic of 1898 gave it 
a new impetus, and in 1896 it fused with the Democrats and nominated William 
J. Bryan. The Populists held that the Government should issue a large volume 
of paper money, and loan it to the people at an exceedingly low rate of interest, 
and so relieve them of paying the high rates charged by the banks and money- 
loaners. They denounced monopolies of all kinds, advocated the free and unlim¬ 
ited coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1, and asked that the United States 
postoffices be authorized to receive money deposits as banks, thus securing depos¬ 
itors against the frequent losses by bank failures, fraudulent and otherwise. 



PENMANSHIP. 


Plates 1—6. 

These plates present the correct standard forms of all the letters used in 
the vertical system of penmanship. The first attempts of children at writing are 
almost invariably vertical markings. Telegraphers and clerks generally who 
must write with great rapidity, come to use the vertical forms. These plates 
should be hung upon the wall above the blackboard before the whole school 
every day of the school year. Trial has satisfactorily proved that pupils con¬ 
stantly refer to the plates so hung, and obtain from them the correct forms of 
the letters. In several city schools where penmanship was not taught as an 
exercise, but where the teacher encouraged good writing and directed the pupils 
to follow the forms of letters given on the plates, the writing of the pupils almost 
without exception became rapid and most admirable. All pupils need some per¬ 
sonal direction in position, holding the pen, and in movement. 

Position. —The front position has long been taught where the slanted 
writing was used. It is the only true position, and is illustrated on Plate 1. The 
arms rest equally upon the table and form nearly a right-angle, with the pen at 
the vertex. The feet should be placed firmly on the floor. The body should be 
erect from the hips, and may be inclined slightly^ forward. All sluggish as well 
as all cramped and strained positions are to be carefully avoided. 

The Hand and Pen. —The hand and wrist should be free from the table 
to allow easy movement. The third and fourth finger-nails should touch the 
paper to serve as an easy gliding support for the hand, while the fore-arm lies 
easily on the table, the muscle on its under portion serving as a pivot for motion. 
The thumb touches the pen-holder opposite the last joint of the first finger. The 
pen-holder may point nearly over the inner angle of the elbow. The pen should 
touch the paper squarely, but gently. The paper must be straight in front of 
the writer, and its sides must be parallel with the sides of the table. This last 
direction is all important, as it secures a vertical movement of the pen. 

Movement. —The movements in vertical writing are nearly the same as 
those for the slanted system. These movements are known as the finger move¬ 
ment, the fore-arm movement, and the whole-arm movement. The finger move¬ 
ment needs no explanation. The fore-arm movement is effected by giving the 
fore-arm, and consequently the pen, a rotary or a sliding motion on the muscle 
upon which it rests; while the fingers and wrist remain, relatively to the fore¬ 
arm, at rest. The whole-arm movement is effected from the shoulder; the fore¬ 
arm not touching the table, but the finger-nails of the third and fourth fingers 
serving as the only rest to steady the hand as it glides over the paper. It is 
little used. The combined finger and fore-arm movement is the best for prac¬ 
tical writing. 




REFERENCES TO PLATE 28. 


Figure L 

A VIEW OF THE BASE OF THE BRAIN, SHOWING THE CEREBRUM 
AND CEREBELLUM TOGETHER WITH THEIR NERVES. 


1. Anterior Extremity of the Fis¬ 

sure of the Hemispheres of the 
Brain. 

2. Posterior Extremity of the same 

Fissure. 

3. The Right Anterior Lobe of the 

Cer'e-brum. 

4. Its Middle Lobe. 

5. Fissure of Syl'vi-us. 

6. Posterior Lobe of the Cerebrum. 

7. Point of the Infundibulum. 

8. Its Body. 

9. The Cor'por-a Al-bi-can'tia. 

10. Cin-er-i'tous Matter. 

11. The Cura Cerebri. 

12. The Pons Va-ro'li-i. 

13. Topof the Me-duTla Ob-lon-ga'ta. 

14. Posterior Prolongation of the 

Pons Varolii. 

15. Middle of the Cer-e-bel'lum. 

16. Anterior Portion of Cerebellum. 

17. Its Posterior Part and the Fis¬ 

sure of the Hemispheres. 

18. Superior Part of the Medulla 

Spi-naTis. 

19. Middle Fissure of the Medulla 

Oblongata. 


20. The Cor'pus Pyr-am-i-dal'is. 

21. The Corpus Rest-i-form'e. 

22. The Corpus Oli-va're. 

23. The Ol-fac'to-ry Nerve. 

24. Its Bulb. 

25. Its External Root. 

26. Its Middle Root. 

27. Its Internal Root. 

28. The Optic Nerve beyond the 

Chi'asm. 

29. The Optic Nerve before the 

Chiasm. 

30. The Mo'tor Oc-cu'li, or Third 

Pair of Nerves. 

31. The Fourth Pair, or Pathetic 

Nerves. 

32. The Fifth Pair, or Tri-gem'i-nal 

Nerves. 

33. The Sixth Pair, or Motor Exter- 

nus. 

34. The Facial Nerve. 

35. The Au'di-to-ry Nerve, or Sev¬ 

enth Pair. 

36. 37, 38. The Eighth Pair of Nerves. 

(The Ninth Pair could not be 
shown here.) 


Figure 2. 

A VIEW OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIFACIAL, OR FIFTH 

PAIR OF NERVES. 


1. Bony Socket of the Eye. 

2. An'trum High-mo-ri-a'num. 

3. Tongue. 

4. Lower Jaw-Bone. 

5. Root of Fifth Pair, forming the 

Gang'li-on of Gas'ser. 

6. First, or Oph-thal'mic Branch of 

Fifth Pair. 

7. Second, or Superior Maxillary 

Branch. 

8. Third, or Inferior Maxillary 

Branch. 


9. Frontal Branch, dividing into In¬ 
ternal and External Frontal 
Nerves. 

10. Lachrymal Nerve. 

11. Nasal Branch and Ciliary 

Branches. 

12. Internal Nasal Nerve, enters Eth¬ 

moid Bone. 

13. External Nasal Nerve. 

14. Frontal Bone. 

15. In-fra-or'bi-tal Nerve. 

16. Posterior Dental Branches. 





THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


51 


17. Middle Dental Branch. 

18. Anterior Dental Nerve. 

19. Terminating Branches of the La¬ 

bial and Palpebral Nerves. 

20. Orbital Nerve. 

21. Pterygoid, or Recurrent Nerve. 

22. Anterior Branches of Third 


Branch of Fifth Pair. 

23. Lingual Branch of Fifth Pair. 

24. Inferior Dental Nerve. 

25. Its Mental Branches. 

26. Superficial Temporal Nerve. 

27. Auricular Branches. 

28. Mylo-Hyoid Branch. 


Figure 8. 

A VIEW OF THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS OF NERVES AND ITS 
BRANCHES TO THE ARM. 

1 , 1 . 

2 , 2 . 

3. 

4. 


The Scalenus Muscle. 

Median Nerve. 

Ulnar Nerve. 

Branches to the Biceps Muscle. 


5. The Thoracic Nerves. 

6. The Phren'ic Nerve from the 

Third and Fourth Cervical. 


A 


1 . 

2 . 

3. 

4. 


1 . 

2 . 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6 . 

7. 

8 . 
9. 


Figure 4. 


VIEW OF THE NERVES ON THE FRONT OF THE FOREARM 

AND HAND. 


The Median Nerve. 

Anterior Branch of the Musculo- 
Spiral, or Radial Nerve. 

The Ulnar Nerve. 

Division of the Median Nerve in 


the Palm, to the Thumb, First, 
Second, and Radial Side of the 
Third Finger. 

5. Division of Ulnar Nerve to Third 
and Fourth Fingers. 


Figure 5. 

A VIEW OF THE SYMPATHETIC NERVE. 


The Plexus on the Carotid Ar¬ 
tery. 

Sixth Nerve. (Motor Externus.) 

First Branch of Fifth, or Oph¬ 
thalmic Nerve. 

Branch going to the Incisive Fo¬ 
ramen. 

Recurrent Branch dividing into 
Carotid and Pe-tro'sal Nerves. 

Posterior Palatine Branches. 

Lingual Nerve, joined by the 
Corda Tym'pan-a. 

The Por'ti-o Du ra of the Facial 
Nerve. 

TheSuperiorCervical Gang'li-on. 


10. The Middle Cervical Ganglion. 

11. The Inferior Cervical Ganglion. 

12. Roots of the Great Splanch'nic 

Nerve. 

13. The Lesser Splanchnic Nerve. 

14. The Renal Plexus. 

15. The Solar Plexus. 

16. The Mes-en-ter'ic Plexus. 

17. A Lumbar Ganglion. 

18. The Sa'cral Ganglia. 

19. The Ves'i-cal Plexus. 

20. The Rect'al Plexus. 

21. The Lumbar Plexus. (Cerebro¬ 

spinal.) 

22. The Rectum. 












52 


THE STUDENT’S CABINET 


23. The Bladder. 

25. The Crest of the Ilium. 

26. Kidney. 

27. Aorta. 

28. Diaphragm. 

29. Heart. 


30. Larynx. 

31. Sub-Maxillary Gland. 

32. Incisor Teeth. 

33. Nasal Septum. 

34. Globe of the Eye. 

35. 36. Cavity of Cranium. 


Figure 7. 

A VIEW OK THE PARTS OF THE EYE. 


1. The Sclerotic Coat—Scle-rot'i-ca. 

2. The Choroid Coat—Cho-roi'de-a. 

3. The Ret'i-na. 

4. Chamber of Vit're-ous Humor. 

5. Chamber of A'que-ous Humor. 

6. Crys'tal-line Lens. 

7. Cor'nea. 

8, 8. Con-junc-ti'va. 


9. The Iris. 

10. The Cil'i-a-ry Muscle. 

11. Canal of Petit. 

12. Point of Termination of the 

Retina. 

13. Op'tic Nerve and Sheath. 

14. Superior and Inferior Rectus 

Muscles. 


Figure A. 

A VIEW OF THE BACK OF THE BRAIN, SPINAL CORD, AND THE 
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE NERVES. 


1. The Cer'e-brum. 

2. The Cer-e-bel'lum. 

3. The Spi'nal Cord, showing the 

origin of the Nerves from the 
Upper Cervical Vertebrae which 


form the Cervical Plexus , also 
that of the Nerves from the 
Lower Cervical which form the 
Brachial Plexus . 

4. The Sci-at'ic Nerve. 


Figure B. 

A SEGMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD. 


1. Anterior Median Fissure. 

2. Posterior Median Fissure. 

3. Postero-lateral Fissure. 

4. The Gray Matter. 

5. Ganglion on the Posterior Root. 

6. Filaments of a Posterior Root 


arising from the Postero-lateral 
Fissure. 

7. Filaments of an Anterior Root. 

8. Spinal Nerve. 

9. Antero-lateral Fissure. 


Figure C. 

A TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE SPINAL CORD. 

1. Anterior Fissure. 3, 3. Ganglia on Posterior Roots. 

2. Posterior Fissure. 4, 4. Anterior Roots. 













THE STUDENT’S CABINET. 


53 


Figure D. 

THE BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES. 

The figure presents a view of a section of the brain on the median line. 
The dotted lines show approximately the origin, course and distribution of the 
cranial nerves. Some authors name twelve pairs of these nerves, Gray gives but 
nine. We have given what Gray calls the 8th pair, as the 8th, 10th and 11th 


pairs. The auditory branch, h, of the 
pair. 

1. Frontal Lobe of Cerebrum. 

2. Parietal Lobe. 

3. Occipital Lobe. 

4. The Cerebellum, showing a sec¬ 

tion through it. 

5. Corpus Callosum. 

6. Septum Lucidum, separating the 

front portion of the Corpus Cal¬ 
losum from the Fornix. 

7. The Fornix. 

8. Anterior Pillar of the Fornix, 

descending to form a loop, it 
extends to the Optic Thalmus. 

9. The Optic Thalmus. The darker 

oval to the left of the number 
shows the Foramen of Monro; 
the lighter oval to the right and 
below, the position of the Gray 
Matter which accompanies the 
Commissure joining the two 
Thalmic Bodies. 

10. The Vellum Interpositum. 

11. The Pineal (cone-shaped) Gland. 

12. Two of the Corpora Quadri- 

gemina. four somewhat solid 
bodies, connected with the Op¬ 
tic Thalmus by means of white 
bands. 

13. The Pons Varolii. It connects the 

Cerebrum and Cerebellum. 

14. Medulla Oblongata. 

15. The Crus Cerebri, the connecting 

link between the Cerebrum and 
the Pons Varolii; and through 
the latter communicates with 
the Medulla Oblongata and 
thence with the Spinal Cord. 


7th pair is sometimes given as the 8th 

16. The Pituitary Body. 

17. The Anterior Commissure — a 

rounded cord of white matter 
connecting the anterior por¬ 
tions of the hemispheres of the 
Cerebium. 

18. The Calloso-Marginal Fissure. 

19. The Parieto-Occipital Fissure. 

20. Superficial portion of Cerebellum. 

A. Casserian Ganglion. 

B. Superior Maxillary Branch of the 

5th pair. 

C. Inferior Maxillary Branch. 

D. Orbital Branch to Temporal and 

Malar portions of the orbit. 
d. Buccal Nerve, to the Buccinator 
Muscle. 

Gustatory or Lingual Nerve, gives 
branches to the papillae of the 
tongue, and the mucous mem¬ 
brane of the mouth. Filaments 
of these branches anastomose 
with the branches of the Hypo¬ 
glossal Nerve. 

/. Inferior Dental Nerve, supplies 
the teeth of the lower jaw. 

g. Mylo-Hyoid Nerve, supplies the 

muscle of the same name, and 
also the Digastric Muscle. 

h. The Auditory Branch of the 7th 

pair (sometimes called the 8th 
pair), passes into the internal 
ear, and is the nerve of the 
special sense of hearing. 

j. Dental Branch of the Superior 

Maxillary Nerve. 

k. Nasal Branch. 








54 


THE STUDENT’^ CABINET. 


4 « 


l. The Anastomosis of the Gusta¬ 
tory and Hypoglossal Nerves, 

m. Lingual Branches of the Glosso¬ 

pharyngeal Nerves. 

n. Branches of same to the Pharynx. 

o. Spinal Nerves arising from the 

Spinal Cord. 

p. Distribution of filaments of the 

1st pair, the Olfactory, to the 
mucous membrane of the nose, 
giving the special sense of 
smell. 


1st 

Pair. 

The Olfactory Nerve. 

2d 

Pair. 

The Optic Nerve. 

3d 

Pair. 

Motores Oculi (Motors of 



the Eye). 

4th 

Pair. 

The Pathetic, supplies the 


superior oblique muscle of 
the eye It is the small¬ 
est of the cranial nerves. 


5th Pair. The Trifacial Nerve, sup¬ 
plies the mucous mem¬ 


brane of the nose, mouth, 
tongue, and is both mo- 
tory and sensory. 

6th Pair. The Abducens,supplies the 
external rectus muscle of 
the eye. 

7th Pair. The Facial Nerve,the motor 
nerve of expression, sup¬ 
plying the muscles of the 
face, and also the bucci¬ 
nator and platysma. 

8th Pair. The Glosso-Pharyngeal, to 
the tongue and pharynx. 

9th Pair. Hypoglossal, to the tongue. 

10th Pair. The Pneumogastric, sup¬ 
plies the stomach, heart 
and lungs. 

11th Pair. The Spinal Accessory,sends 
branches to the sterno- 
cleido,mastoid muscle,and 
joins with the nerves of 
the 3d cervical vertebra. 


Figure 6. 
THE EAR. 


A. Petrous portion of the Tem¬ 
poral Bone. 

B. B. Cartilage. 

C. A portion of the Parotid Gland. 

D. The Styloid Process. 

1. The Pinna. 

2. External Auditory Meatus. 

3. Tympanic Membrane. 

4. The Tensor Tympani Muscle. 

5. The Cochlea. 


6. Processus Cochleaiformis. 

7. Eustachian Tube. 

8. The Malleus Bone (hammer). 

9. The Incus (anvil). 

10. Semi-circular Canals. 

11. An Ampulla of the Canal. 

12. The Stapes (stirrup). 

13. The Vestibule. 

14. Entrance of the Optic Nerve. 








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